加强黑山基于自然的解决方案 Enhancing Nature-based Solutions in Montenegro

EnhancingNature-basedSolutionsinMontenegro

Theroleofecosystemsindisasterriskreductionandclimatechangeadaptation

TanjaPopovicki,VerónicaRuizandDaisyHessenberger

AboutIUCN

IUCNisamembershipUnionuniquelycomposedofbothgovernmentandcivilsocietyorganisations.Itprovidespublic,privateandnon-governmentalorganisationswiththeknowledgeandtoolsthatenablehumanprogress,economicdevelopmentandnatureconservationtotakeplacetogether.

Createdin1948,IUCNisnowtheworld’slargestandmostdiverseenvironmentalnetwork,harnessingtheknowledge,resourcesandreachofmorethan1,400Memberorganisationsandsome15,000experts.Itisaleadingproviderofconservationdata,assessmentsandanalysis.ItsbroadmembershipenablesIUCNtofilltheroleofincubatorandtrustedrepositoryofbestpractices,toolsandinternationalstandards.

IUCNprovidesaneutralspaceinwhichdiversestakeholdersincludinggovernments,NGOs,scientists,businesses,localcommunities,Indigenouspeoples’organisationsandotherscanworktogethertoforgeandimplementsolutionstoenvironmentalchallengesandachievesustainabledevelopment.

Workingwithmanypartnersandsupporters,IUCNimplementsalargeanddiverseportfolioofconservationprojectsworldwide.Combiningthelatestsciencewiththetraditionalknowledgeoflocalcommunities,theseprojectsworktoreversehabitatloss,restoreecosystemsandimprovepeople’swell-being.

/IUCN/

EnhancingNature-basedSolutionsinMontenegro

Theroleofecosystemsindisasterriskreductionandclimatechangeadaptation

TanjaPopovicki,VerónicaRuizandDaisyHessenberger

Thedesignationofgeographicalentitiesinthisbook,andthepresentationofthematerial,donotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofIUCNorotherparticipatingorganisationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,orarea,orofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.

TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyreflectthoseofIUCNorotherparticipatingorganisations.

IUCNispleasedtoacknowledgethesupportofitsFrameworkPartnerswhoprovidecorefunding:MinistryofForeignAffairs,Denmark;MinistryforForeignAffairs,Finland;GovernmentofFranceandtheFrenchDevelopmentAgency(AFD);MinistryofEnvironment,RepublicofKorea;MinistryoftheEnvironment,ClimateandSustainableDevelopment,GrandDuchyofLuxembourg;theNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(Norad);theSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(Sida);theSwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation(SDC)andtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofState.

ThispublicationhasbeenmadepossibleinpartbyfundingfromtheSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(Sida).

Publishedby:

Producedby:

Copyright:

IUCN,Gland,Switzerland

IUCNRegionalOfficeforEasternEuropeandCentralAsia(ECARO)

©2023IUCN,InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNaturalResourcesReproductionofthispublicationforeducationalorothernon-commercialpurposesisauthorisedwithoutpriorwrittenpermissionfromthecopyrightholderprovidedthesourceisfullyacknowledged.

Reproductionofthispublicationforresaleorothercommercialpurposesisprohibitedwithoutpriorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightholder.

Recommendedcitation:Popovicki,T.,Ruiz,V.,&Hessenberger,D.(2023).EnhancingNature-basedSolutionsinMontenegro:Theroleofecosystemsindisasterriskreductionandclimatechangeadaptation.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.

Frontcoverphoto:LakeSkadar,Montenegro.PhotobyBoudewijnBoer,

Unsplash.

Layoutby:IUCNECARO

iii

Tableofcontents

Executivesummary iv

Acknowledgements viii

Acronyms ix

1.Purposeandmethodologyofthescopingstudy 1

1.1TheADAPTproject 1

2.Introduction 2

3.Montenegrocountrycontextandbasicdata 4

3.1.Geography 4

3.2.Socioeconomiccontext 6

3.3.Gendercontext 8

3.4.Environmentalcontext 8

3.5.Forests 10

3.6.Water 11

3.7.Agriculturalland 12

3.8.Climatechangecontext 12

3.9.Disasterriskcontext 14

3.9.1Forestfires 15

3.9.2Floods 16

3.9.3Droughtsandheatwaves 18

3.10.Natureprotection,ecosystemservicesandlanddegradation 20

4.Stakeholderrolesandresponsibilities 23

4.1.Stakeholderanalysis 24

5.PolicyandstrategicframeworkforNbS 26

5.1.Climatechange 26

5.2.Disasterriskreduction 31

5.3.GenderequalityinclimateandDRRpolicies 33

5.4.NbSinotherstrategicdocuments 35

5.4.1Biodiversityandnatureprotection 35

5.4.2Forestry 36

5.4.3Watermanagement 36

6.ExperienceswithNbS 38

7.Conclusionsandrecommendations 39

7.1RecommendationsforNbSmainstreamingandapplication 40

AnnexI:Stakeholderresponsibilities 43

AnnexII:ProjectscomplementarytoNbS 50

iv

Executivesummary

Montenegroisadisaster-pronecountryparticularlyvulnerabletoclimatechange,thusaffectingmultiplesectors–agriculture,biodiversity,energy,forestry,publichealth,coastalareasandmaritimeresources,tourism,andwaterresources.Thecombinationoftheriseinfrequencyandintensityofclimate-relatedhazardsandincreasingdevelopmentinthecountryraisestherisksofthesehazards,causingsubstantialeconomicandhealthimpacts.ThisuncertainandchangingsituationishinderingthefulfilmentofMontenegro’senvironmental,economicanddevelopmentaltargets.

Montenegrobearstheconstitutionaldesignationofanecologicalstate,withanenduringcommitmenttosustainabledevelopmentwiththepreservationofahealthyenvironmentandbiodiversity,preservationandimprovementofthequalityofwater,sea,air,soil,spaceandothernaturalresourcesforgenerationstocome.

TheGovernmentofMontenegroadoptedtheNationalSustainableDevelopmentStrategy(NSDS)

1

in2017.Itservesasastrategicdocumentpromotingsustainabledevelopmentpoliciesandsettinglong-termguidelinesforsustainabledevelopmentinMontenegro.Evenwithitsstronglinkagestobothdisasterriskreduction(DRR)andclimatechange,thedocumentwasprimarilydevelopedwithinthecontextofthetransposition,implementationandenforcementoftheEuropeanUnion(EU)acquis,anddoesnotindicatehowtheenvironment,landscapesorecosystemsaretobepreservednordoesitprovidetangiblelinkstointernalandexternalfinancialsourcesforitsimplementation.

Aplethoraofothersectoralpolicyandstrategicdocumentsexists,manyofwhichmightrepresentapotential“entrypoint”formainstreamingNature-basedSolutions(NbS),suchasthosegoverningforests,coastalorwatermanagement.However,NbShavestillnotbeenconsideredexplicitlyorrecognisedwithinMontenegro’spolicyorstrategicframework.

GenderequalityisnotwidelyrecognisedwithinmostsectoralpoliciesinMontenegro,andgenderequalityissuesshouldbemoresystematicallyincorporatedintotheclimateandDRRpoliciesof

Montenegro.

Theinstitutionalresponsibilitiesfordifferentaspectsofclimatechange,disasterriskreductionandbiodiversityaredividedamongvariousministries,nationalplatformsandlocalgovernments

1MinistryofSustainableDevelopmentandTourism(2017).

TheNationalStrategyforSustainableDevelopmentofMontenegro.

Podgorica,Montenegro:MinistryofSustainableDevelopmentandTourism.

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(especiallyinregardtoDRR),andtherearenumerousstakeholderswithvaryinginterestsandcompetenciesintheapplicationandoperationofNbS.

Thefollowingsetofrecommendationsaredefined—forpolicyandpractice—thatcanbeadoptedtosupportthemainstreamingoftheNbSapproachintopolicies,andtofacilitatethefurtherapplicationofNbSmeasuresandprojectsinMontenegro.

1.IntersectoralcooperationandexchangeisakeyprerequisiteforthesuccessfulapplicationofNbS.Ecosystemsarecomplexsystemsandtheirconservation,protectionandsustainablemanagementneedtobeaddressedwithacross-sectoralvision.NbS-relatedmattersshouldgobeyondthemandateofasingleentitygiventhattheirimplementationmightaffectmultiplesectors.Hence,NbSneedstobeintegratedintoappropriatesectoralandcross-sectoralplans,programmesandpolicies,alongwithmeasuresforclimatechangeadaptation(CCA),disasterrisksreduction,conservationandsustainableuseofnatureandresources,underpinnedbystrongcoordinationamongtherelevantinstitutionsandgovernmentalbodies.

EnhancethemainstreamingofNbSandspecificNbSapproachesintosectorallaws,plans,policiesandstrategiesandensurestronglinkagesbetweenDRRandCCA;

Strengtheninstitutionalcapacities(technicalandpersonnel)forestablishingsolidcoordinationandcollaborationacrosssectorswhilealsoimprovinginter-institutional

coordination.

2.Governancearrangementsshouldbebasedonstakeholderengagementand

dialogue

StakeholderswhoaredirectlyandindirectlyaffectedbyNbSshouldbeidentifiedandinvolvedinallstagesofanNbSproject,i.e.,fromdesigntoimplementation.Ontheotherhand,allexistinginformationconcerningtheNbSproject,policyand/orotherneedsshouldbecompiledandenteredintotheNbSdesign,soitcanconsciouslyaddressthetargetedsocietalchallenge(s).Itiscriticaltofostersectoralcooperationandcross-sectoralcoordinationandtoensurecommunicationamonggovernmentstakeholders,thusensuring

bettercommunicationwiththebroadergroupofstakeholders.

Enhancedialogueandtheexchangeofdataandinformationonpolicygoalsandobjectivesamongsectorsand/orinstitutionspertainingtoNbS(climatechange,environment,energy,agriculture,forestry,DRR);

PromoteNbSamongwidergroupsofstakeholderstoensuretheirunderstandingandcommitmentsforbuildingresilienceandresolvingsocietalchallengesthroughapplicationoftheNbSapproach.

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3.EmphasisethemanybenefitsprovidedbyNbSwhileadvocatingfortheirimplementation.PromotingandadvocatingformoreeffectiveutilisationofthepotentialofferedthroughtheapplicationofNbSapproachesshouldconsidertheiroverarchinggoaltoaddressglobalsocietalchallenges,andthepotentialtosubstantiallycontributetomultipleglobalframeworksandtargets.Theirabilitytoprovidemultiplebenefitswhileaddressing

DRRandCCAshouldbeemphasised.

IncreaseawarenessofNbSanditsunlockedpotentialbystressingthecontributiontheseprojectscanhavetowardsachievingmultipletargets/goals,whilealsoservingasareportingmechanism;

Promotethedevelopmentofscientificstudies,analyses,surveys,andprojectsonNbSthroughtheirconnectionstothethreepillars:science,policyandpractice.

4.Enabletangiblelinkstointernalandexternalresources(financial,material,institutional)forimplementationofpoliciesandstrategiesrelatedtoDRR.Reducingthevulnerabilitiesineachsectorispossibleviatargetedpolicyinterventions,developingandenforcingrobustenvironmentalorclimatelegislation,andencouragingtheinvolvementofcivilsocietyandthegeneralpublicinworkingtomitigatetheeffectsofclimatechangeandDRR.Inordertoachievethis,cost-effectivestrategiesforclimateadaptationandriskreductionandmanagementoughttobeintegratedintodevelopmentplanningandpublic

investment.

Improvecapacitiesindisasterriskmanagementandresponsethroughtraining,sincethereisexperiencebutnotechnicalknowledge,e.g.,onunderstandingdisastersand

theirimpacts;

EnsurethatcoordinationandknowledgeofspecificrolesandresponsibilitieswithinDRRissubstantiallyimproved.

5.Designingtailoredpolicies–spatialandtemporalscales.Whiletherearepolicy

measuresalreadyinplacetodealwithclimatechangeanddisasterriskreduction,mostareinadequatetothescaleofthefuturethreat.Whendesigningthistypeofmeasure,itisimportanttoconsiderthespatialandtimescaleandtorecognisethecomplexityofboththelandscapesandfutureuncertainties,particularlyinachangingworld.Theproposedpolicies,basedonNbS,havetobedesignedwithalong-termsustainablevision,andalignedwithcross-sectoral,nationalandotherpolicy/regulatoryframeworks.

Systematiseandimproveexistingprocesses,procedures,timelinesandmethodologiesthatlaythefoundationsfortheproperdesignandimplementationof

NbS;

vii

Establishcross-borderpartnershipsonthegenerationanduseofclimatechangedataandtheirintegrationintodevelopmentandotherplans.

viii

Acknowledgements

WewouldliketoexpressoursinceregratitudetotheADAPTprojectmanagementteamfortheirsupportandguidanceduringthepreparationofthisstudy:

.MrBorisErg,Director,IUCNRegionalOfficeforEasternEuropeandCentralAsia(ECARO),

.MsMihaelaDraganLebovics,NbSSeniorProjectOfficer,IUCNECARO,

.MsMilicaRadanović,NbSOfficer,IUCNECARO,

.MsVesnaBjedov,CommunicationOfficer,IUCNECARO.

Also,ourgratitudegoestorepresentativesoftheMinistryofEcology,SpatialPlanningandUrbanismofMontenegroforprovidingvaluablecommentsandresourcesinenablingustocollectthenecessarydataonNature-basedSolutionsinMontenegro,andtothusenrichthestudywith

relevantexamples.

Authors

ix

Acronyms

BUR

Biennialupdatereport

CBD

ConventiononBiologicalDiversity

CCA

Climatechangeadaptation

CSO

Civilsocietyorganisation

DRR

Disasterriskreduction

EEA

EuropeanEnvironmentAgency

EPA

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency

EU

EuropeanUnion

FAO

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

GCF

GreenClimateFund

GDP

Grossdomesticproduct

GHG

Greenhousegases

GIZ

DeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit

GVA

Grossvalueadded

IPPC

Integratedpollutionprotectionandcontrol

IUCN

InternationalUnionforConservationofNature

MRV

Measurement,reportingandverification

NbS

Nature-basedSolutions

NDC

NationallyDeterminedContribution

NSDS

NationalSustainableDevelopmentStrategy

RCC

RegionalCooperationCouncil

Sida

SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency

SDG

SustainableDevelopmentGoal

TNC

ThirdNationalCommunicationunderUNFCCC

UNFCCC

UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange

UNDP

UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNECE

UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope

1

1.Purposeandmethodologyofthescopingstudy

Theoverallpurposeofthisscopingstudy(hereinafter:Study)istoprovidethestate-of-theartoftheMontenegrinnationalcontextwithregardstotheapplicationofNature-basedSolutions

(NbS)approachesforclimatechangeadaptation(CCA)anddisasterriskreduction(DRR).

ThemainobjectivesofthisStudyareto:1)analysethenationalinstitutional,policyandlegalcontextsthatenableNbSapplication,2)presentanoverviewofnaturalhazardsanddisastersin

Montenegroandthecorrelatedrisks,3)elaborateontheaddedbenefitofdeployingNbSinthegivencontext,4)identifyknowledge,institutionalandcapacitygapsandbarriersforapplyingNbS,and5)providerecommendationsandentrypointsformainstreamingNbSintonationalDRRand

climatechangepoliciesandstrategies.

TheStudyreliesontheavailableandaccessibledataandinformationextractedfromexistingdocumentationsonpolicies,programmesandstrategies–fromlocaltoglobalcontexts.Thiscompilationiscomplementedbypastandongoinginitiatives,projectsandactivitiesinMontenegroonNature-basedSolutionsforDRRandCCAtocreateacomprehensiverepositoryofbestpracticesandlessonslearnedthatsupporttherecommendationsandidentificationofentrypoints

forpotentialNbSscalabilityandreplicability.

1.1TheADAPTproject

The

ADAPT:Nature-basedSolutionsforresilientsocietiesintheWesternBalkans

projectaimstoincreaseecosystemandcommunityresiliencetoclimatechangeandenvironmentaldegradationintheWesternBalkans.ThisregionalumbrellainitiativeworkswithsixWesternBalkaneconomies,

regionalandlocalpartners.

ADAPTcontributestoreducingenvironmentaldegradationandincreasingclimateresiliencethroughNature-basedSolutions,whileensuringsocialandgenderequalityintheWesternBalkan

region.

Toensurelong-termandbalancedoutcomes,theprojectrestsonthreemajorpillars:

KnowledgeenhancementandawarenessraisingonNature-basedSolutionsfordisastersandclimateresilienceacrossmultiplestakeholders–fromdecision-makersandnaturalresourcemanagerstolocalcommunities–withaspecificfocusongender;

Mainstreamingclimate-compliantandequitableNbSintoadaptationanddisasterreduction

policyrelatedpolicyinstruments;and

NbSimplementationandscale-upforDRR.

2

2.Introduction

TheWesternBalkansareamongthemostvulnerableregionsinEuropeintermsofclimatechangeandenvironmentalimpacts.Extremeevents,suchasfloods,droughtsandforestfires,areforecasttooccurmorefrequentlyandwithgreaterimpacts,callingformeasuresthatreducedisasterriskswhileincreasingresilienceandCCA.The2016EuropeanEnvironmentAgency(EEA)report

2

on

climatechangeimpactsandvulnerabilityinEuropeconsidersSoutheastEuropeandsouthernpartsofthecontinentashighlypronetoclimatechangeeffects,asaregionwiththehighestimpactofclimatechangeandnumberofseverelyaffectedsectorsanddomains.

The

studyonclimatechangeintheWesternBalkans,

3

publishedbytheRegionalCooperationCouncil(RCC)inJune2018,showsanalarmingincreaseoftemperatureoverthewholeterritory,withaforecasttemperatureincreaseof1.2°Cinthenearfuture,destinedtowarmfurtherby1.7–4.0°Candevenexceeding5.0°Cbytheendofthecentury,dependingonglobaleffortstoreducegreenhousegas(GHG)emissions.Analysesofclimatechangeimpactsintheregionrecognisethat

humanhealth,safetyandthequalityoflifearehighlyaffectedbynaturalhazardsandsectorialweather-relatedlosses,whilealsoidentifyingagriculture,forestry,waterresourcesandhuman

healthassectorsexpectedtoexperiencethegreatestimpacts.

AsaMediterraneancountry,Montenegroisexposedtovariousnaturalhazards,includingfrequent

floods,heavyrainfallsandsnowfalls,avalanches,windstorms,heatwaves,landslides,forestfires,seismicevents,droughts,airbornesandfromdeserts,andcertainepidemicsthataredirectlyorindirectlyrelatedtohydrology,meteorologyandtheweatherconditions.Anumberofhazardsalsoposerisksacrossbordersintheregion,especiallyfloods,forestfiresandthedispersionofairborne

pollutants.

Thereisanincreasingunderstandingthatnatureprovides‘no-regret’solutionsthatarecost-effectiveandcancontributetoincreasingcommunityresiliencebeyondsociety’scapacitytoabsorbandrecoverfromasingledisaster,suchasafloodordrought.Whilestillanemergingconcept,NbShaveclearlydemonstratedtheirvalueinprovidingmultiplebenefitstosocieties,e.g.,inmitigatingandadaptingtoclimatechangeimpacts,reducingdisasterrisks,improvingcommunityresilienceandlivelihoods,andsafeguardingecosystemsandbiodiversity.

VariousapproachessupporttheapplicationofNbS,includinggreeninfrastructure(GI),ecosystem-baseddisasterriskreductionoranEcosystem-basedApproach.MeasuresfacilitatingthepracticalimplementationofNbSthroughpolicydevelopmentandenforcement,stakeholderinvolvementand

2EuropeanEnvironmentAgency(2017).

Climatechange,impactsandvulnerabilityinEurope2016.Anindicator-basedreport.

Luxembourg:PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion.DOI:10.2800/534806

3Vuković,A&Mandić,M.(2018).

StudyonclimatechangeintheWesternBalkansregion.

Sarajevo,BosniaandHerzegovina:RegionalCooperationCouncil.

3

buildingcapacitiesofnationalinstitutionsand/orlocalcommunitiesareequallyimportant.

4

TheIUCNGlobalStandardforNature-basedSolutionsTM,

5

launchedinJuly2020,withitsassociatedguidance

6

operationalisesNbSbyprovidingacommonlanguageandframeworkinordertodesign,verifyandscaleupNbSapplicationsandpolicies.

InordertoelaborateonthespecificcontextofMontenegroinrelationtotheopportunitiesderivingfromtheapplicationofNbSapproachesinaddressingsomeoftheabove-mentionedclimate,communityresilienceanddisasterrisks,onehastounderstandtheoverallframeworkfortheirimplementationinMontenegro.NbSisanoverarching,crosscuttingconceptthatbydefinitioninvolvesvarioussectors,asshownin

Figure1.

TheclimatechangeandDRRissuespenetrateintoallrelevantsectors,demandingthatchallengesbeaddressedthroughclimateadaptationandmitigationmeasuresoractionsstrivingtoreducetherisksfromdisasters.

Figure1.NbSapproachesbasedontheIUCNdefinitionincludingthesevensocietalchallengesthatNbSaddress(climatechangeadaptationandmitigation,disasterriskreduction,economicandsocialdevelopment,humanhealth,foodsecurity,watersecurityandecosystemdegradationandbiodiversityloss(Source:IUCN,2020,seefootnote5).

4Popovicki,T.(2019).StudyonNature-basedSolutionsinSerbia.Belgrade,Serbia:UNDP.

5IUCN(2020).

GlobalStandardforNature-basedSolutions.Auser-friendlyframeworkfortheverification,designandscalingupofNbS.

Firstedition.

Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.

6IUCN(2020).

GuidanceforusingtheIUCNGlobalStandardforNature-basedSolutions.Auser-friendlyframeworkfortheverification,

designandscalingupofNature-basedSolutions.

Firstedition.Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.

4

3.Montenegrocountrycontextandbasicdata

3.1.Geography

MontenegroislocatedinSoutheastEurope,ontheBalkanPeninsula

(Figure2,

Table1)

.Thecountrycoversasurfaceareaofapproximately13,812km²,whilethecoastlineis293.5kmlong.

Figure2:PhysicalmapofMontenegro(Source:Worldometer,

/maps/montenegro-map/)

Montenegrocanbedividedintothreeregions:theAdriaticcoastandlowlandsinthesouthwest;thecentrallowlandplainwithLakeSkadar,andtheZetaandlowerMoračaRivers,andtheinlandmountainregionthatdominatesMontenegro’sgeographyinthewest.Mostmountainousareasarelocatedinthenorthofthecountry,with37summitsofelevationsover2000metres.

ThedeepestcanyoninEurope,theTaraRiverGorge,islocatedwithinthesemountainsandhasadepthofupto1,300metres.ThemountainsdescendtothecentralinlandplainsandthevalleysoftheZetaandlowerMoračaRiver.ThesevalleyscomprisetheZeta-BjelopavlićiplainwiththelargestlakeontheBalkanPeninsula,LakeSkadar.

5

Table1.Montenegrogeneralinformation(Source:DatacompiledbyStudyauthors)

Landborderlength

614km

Coastlinelength

283km

Totalsurfacearea

13,812km2

Territorialseaarea

2,540km2

Agriculturallandarea

5,145km2

Forestlandarea

6,225km2

Thewidthofthecoastalplainsvariesfromhundredsofmeterstoseveralkilometresandcomprisesapproximately11%ofthetotalnationalarea.Approximately37%ofthenationalterritoryiscovered

byagriculturallands,45%byforestsand18%bycoastalplains,settlements,roadsandrocky

areas.

TheforestcoverratioinMontenegrois0.9hectaresperperson,withanoveralltimberstockofabout72millionm3.Montenegroiscategorisedasawater-richcountrywithanaverageannualrunoffof624m3/s.

7

Montenegro’sgeographyalsoenablesintensiveuseoflandresourcesforagriculturewhilelimitingexposuretosoilerosion,asonly7%oftheterritoryhasaslopeoflessthan5degrees.

8

AgriculturallandinMontenegrocoversanareaof309,241hectaresandaccountsfor22.4%oftheterritory(ofwhich95.2%isfamilyfarmsand4.8%isregisteredagriculturalholdings).Thislandishighlyfragmented.

Morethan90%ofthelandareainMontenegroliesatelevationsover200metres,45%islessthan1,000m,whilethemountainousareasover1,500mcoverabout15%oftheterritory.ThegeologicalstructureofMontenegroischaracterisedbyrockofvaryingages.Limestone,dolomite,andigneousrocksaccountforalmosttwo-thirdsofthelandarea.Hydrogeologicalcharacteristicsaredeterminedbythegeologicalstructureoftheterrain.Duetothecompositionoftherocks,precipitationquicklypenetratesintotheground,feedingbothconfinedandunconfinedkarstaquifersthatdischargeintothezonesoferosionbases,thesea,LakeSkadar,andalongtherimoftheZeta-Bjelopavlićiplain,NikšićField,andtheareaadjacenttothewatercoursebeds.

9

Administratively,thecountryisdividedinto23political-territorialunits(municipalities)thatperformlocalgovernancefunctions.ThecapitalofMontenegroisPodgorica,whichisalsothelargestcity.

7UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)[website].Availableath

ttps:///explore/southern-

europe/montenegro.

Assessedon20July,2022.

8FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)(2018).

Comprehensiveanalysisofthedisasterriskreductionand

managementsystemforagricultureinMontenegro.

Podgorica,Montenegro:FAO.

9MinistryofSustainableDevelopmentandTourism(MSDT)UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)inMontenegro(2020).

MontenegroThirdNationalCommunicationonClimateChange2020.

Podgorica,Montenegro:MSDT,UNDP.

6

3.2.Socioeconomiccontext

Montenegroregaineditsindependencein2006andithasaparliamentarypoliticalsystem.Since2002,therehasbeenaperiodofsolideconomicgrowth.Afar-reachingprogrammeofprivatisationhasbeenimplemented,publicdebthasbeenreducedtoamoreacceptablelevelandlegislationhasbeenenactedtoregulateandliberalisethebusinessenvironment.Fuelledbyatidalwaveo