产品定价和定价策略

Chapter11PRICINGSTRATEGIES1Theprocessofpricesetting2Pricingstrategies3InitiatingandRespondingtoPriceChangeInthischapter,wefocuson3parts:

Chapter11PricingStrategiesFormerprocessNowDesigninganewproductDeterminingitscostAsking‘canwesellitforthis’AnidealsellingpricebasedoncustomerconsiderationsTargetscoststhatwillensurethatthepriceismetChapter11PricingStrategies1Theprocessofsettingprice1TheprocessofsettingpriceDeterminingDemandEstimatingCostsSelectingthePricingObjectiveAnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffersSelectingPricingMethodSelectingtheFinalPriceChapter11PricingStrategies1.1.1Thepositionoftheproduct1.1.2thePricingObjective1.1SelectingthePricingObjectiveChapter11PricingStrategiesUnderthecircumstances,companiesmustfirstlydecideontargetpriceforaproduct,thendecideonitstargetcostandothermarketingmix.Beforeselectingthepricingobjectives,thefirmmustdecidewheretopositionitsproductonqualityandprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.1.1ThepositionoftheproductSegment(市场细分)ExampleUltimate(最高)Mercedes-Benzvs.RollsRoyceLuxury(奢华)Audivs.LexusSpecialNeed(特别需求)VolvoMiddle(中档)Buickvs.ToyotaConvenience(便利)EscortMetoo,butcheaper(类似品，但较廉价)HyundaiPriceAlone(价钱导向)DaihatsuChapter11PricingStrategies1.1.1ThepositionoftheproductForexampleifGMdecidestoproduceanewsportscartocompetewithEuropeansportscarsinthehigher-incomesegment,suggestschargingahighprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.1.2thePricingObjectiveSurvivalMaximumCurrentProfitMaximumCurrentRevenueMaximumSalesGrowthMaximumMarketSkimmingMarketshareleadershipProduct-QualityLeadershipCompetitionRestrainingpricestabilization…1.2DeterminingDemand＄15＄10价格100105每期的需求数量＄15＄10价格50150每期的需求数量Chapter11PricingStrategies●acurvethatshowsthenumberofunitsthemarketwillbuyinagiventimeperiodatdifferentpricesthatmightbecharged.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.2.1Demandcurve●thedemandusuallyincreaseswhenpricefalls.Buttheruleisprobablybrokeninsomecircumstances.demandssuppliesQuantitysoldpriceThebalancepointChapter11PricingStrategies1.2.2theprice-demandrelationship1.2.3FactorsAffectingDemand-PriceSensitivityUnique-ValueEffectSubstitute-AwarenessEffectDifficult-ComparisonEffectTotal-ExpenditureEffectEnd-BenefitEffectShared-CostEffectSunk-InvestmentEffectPrice-QualityEffectInventoryEffectChapter11PricingStrategies●Priceelasticity:ameasureofthesensitivityofdemandtochangesinprice.Itisdescribedasfollows:Priceelasticityofdemand=(%changeinquantitydemand)/(%changeinprice)orasfollows:Chapter11PricingStrategies1.2.4Priceelasticity∞×〔1，∞〕〔elastic〕E=1×〔0，1〕〔inelastic〕0×Chapter11PricingStrategies1.2.4PriceelasticityDiscussionofpriceelasticity:Forelastic:↓P→Q↑↑→PQ↑→profit↑Forinelastic:↑↑P→Q↓→PQ↑→profit↑1.3.1Typeofcosts1.3.2CostBehavior1.3.3TheExperienceCurve1.3.4Cost,varietyandquality1.3.5PricingaccordingtoCost1.3EstimatingCostsChapter11PricingStrategies●variablecosts:coststhatvarydirectlywiththelevelofproduction.●fixedcosts:coststhatdonotvarywithproductionorsalelevel.●totalcosts:thesumofthefixedandvariablecostsforanygivenlevelofproduction.●marginalcosts:increasedcostproduceaunitofproduct.●averagecosts:totalcosts/quantityproduced=variablecosts+fixedcosts/quantityproducedChapter11PricingStrategies1.3.1Typeofcosts

短期平均本钱曲线单位成本1，000每天消费的数量CostBehaviorinaFixed-SizePlant〔在固定规模工厂中的本钱特性〕

单位成本1234短期平均本钱曲线长期平均本钱曲线1,0002,0003,0004,000CostBehaviorOverDifferent-SizePlants〔不同规模工厂的本钱特性〕

Chapter11PricingStrategies1.3.2CostBehavior1.3.3TheExperienceCurveTheExperienceCurve(阅历曲线)＄10＄8＄6＄4＄2单位本钱···CBA阅历本钱曲线当前价钱100,000200,000400,000800,000AccumulatedProduction积累消费Chapter11PricingStrategies◆本钱与种类◆本钱与质量程度COnCOQualityLevel质量缺点质量预防总质量本钱Chapter11PricingStrategies1.3.4Cost,varietyandqualityDiscussion:Howpricingaccordingtocosts?●ifprice≥averagecost,thenprofits≥0.●ifprice＜averagecost,thenprofits＜0.Undersomespecificcircumstances,itcanbeallowed,butpricecan'tbelowerthanvariablecost,sovariablecostisusuallyconsideredthefloorprice.●ifprice＜marginalcost,doesn’tmeanlackofprofitforacompanythoughtnegativeprofitperunitofproduct,becausepricemightbehigherthanaveragecost,unlesssoldquantityexcessalimitedquantity.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.3.5PricingaccordingtoCostDiscussion:Howpricingaccordingtocosts?AveragecostMarginalcostDemandQuantityproducedPrice,cost,＄MaxProfitMinCostChapter11PricingStrategies1.3.5PricingaccordingtoCost1.4AnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffersCompetitors’costs,prices,andoffers●Thecompany’spricingstrategymayaffectthenatureofthecompetitionitfaces.Forexample,IfCanonfollowsahigh-price,high-marginstrategy,itmayattractcompetition.Alow-price,low-marginstrategy,however,maystopcompetitorsordrivethemoutofthemarket.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.4AnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffers●Thecompany’spricingstrategymayaffectthenatureofthecompetitionitfaces.Forexample,IfCanonfollowsahigh-price,high-marginstrategy,itmayattractcompetition.Alow-price,low-marginstrategy,however,maystopcompetitorsordrivethemoutofthemarket.Chapter11PricingStrategiesdifferenttypesofmarkets:●Purecompetition:pricedbymarket●Monopolisticcompetition:mainlypricedbymarketcompetition,atradearrangementisprobablyreachedbysellers,butitsbindingforceisfeeble.●Oligopoliescompetition(寡头竞争):pricedbysellers’arrangement●Puremonopoly〔独占〕:pricedbyasellerChapter11PricingStrategies1.4AnalyzingCompetitors’Costs,prices,andOffers1.5SelectingPricingMethod

Chapter11PricingStrategiesMarkupPricingTarget-ReturnPricingPerceived-ValuePricingValuePricingGoing-RatePricingSealed-BidPricingProductcostsPricefloorNoprofitsbelowthispriceCompetitors’priceotherinternalandexternalfactorsConsumerPerceptionsofvaluePriceceilingNodemandabovethispricePricingtheoriesandapproachesChapter11PricingStrategiesChapter11PricingStrategies●1.5.1Cost-basedpricing●1.5.2Break-evenanalysisandtargetprofitpricing●1.5.3Value-basedpricing●1.5.4Competition-basedpricing●1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach1.5SelectingPricingMethod

1.5.1Cost-basedpricing●(1)Definition:addingastandardmarkuptothecostoftheproduct.●(2)Formation:■productprice=unitcost+markupprice,■unitcost=variablecost+fixedcosts/salesvolume,■markupprice=unitcost×addedrate,or=unitcost/(1-desiredreturnonsales)Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.2Break-evenanalysisandtargetprofitpricing●(1)Definition:settingpricetobreakevenonthecostsofmakingandmarketingaproduct;orsettingpricetomakeatargetprofit.●(2)Formation:■productprice=unitvariablecost+(targetprofit+fixedcost)/salesvolumeChapter11PricingStrategies(3)Relationamongsalesvolume,costsandprofitsFormation:profit=(price－variablecost)×production/salevolume－totalfixedcostSalesvolumeFixedcostTotalcostTotalincomeIncome/profit/pricebreak-evenvolumeBreakevenpriceChapter11PricingStrategiesbreak-evenvolume=fixedcost/(price–variablecost)R=〔P－Cv〕×Q－CoR、Co分为统计期的利润、固定本钱Q为统计期的产销量Cv为单位产品的可变本钱●pricingbasedontargetprofitsChapter11PricingStrategies(3)Relationamongsalesvolume,costsandprofits●(1)Definition:settingpricebasedonbuyers’perceptionsofvalueratherthanontheseller’scost.●(2)Valuepricing:offeringjusttherightcombinationofqualityandgoodserviceatafairprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.3Value-basedpricing价格销售量CvCo利润1P1Q1CvCoR12P2Q2R2…………kPkQkRk…………nPnQnRnPricing:P=PkMax｛R1，R2，…，Rk，…，Rn｝MaxChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.3Value-basedpricing●(3)Theproceedingofvalue-basedpricingCost-basedpricingproductcostpricevaluecustomersValue-basedpricingCustomersvaluepricecostproductChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.3Value-basedpricing●(3)Theproceedingofvalue-basedpricing(1)Definition:settingpricesbasedonthepricesthatcompetitorschargeforsimilarproducts.(2)Forms:●going-ratepricing●sealed-bidpricingChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.4Competition-basedpricing(1)cost-basedpricing◆简便、适用，将本求利，普通不会诱发价钱竞争◆定价过程脱离市场，“闭门造车〞，所定价钱要么高于市场可接受价钱，面临滞销风险；要么低于市场可接受价钱，面临市场抢购和营销时机损失◆企业缺乏自动控制和降低本钱的动力和压力Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach(2)value-basedpricingonthecontrarywithcost-basedpricingChapter11PricingStrategies1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach(3)Competition-basedpricing:◆综合了以上两种方法的部分优点，如简便、富有价钱竞争力、价钱决议本钱等◆价钱刚性较强，有时对手的价风格整会导致企业“措手不及〞◆能够长期没有利润Chapter11PricingStrategies1.5.5Advantagesanddisadvantagesofeachpricingapproach1.6SelectingtheFinalPricePsychologicalPricingTheInfluenceofOthermarketing-MixElementsonPriceCompanyPricingPoliciesImpactofPriceonOtherpartiesChapter11PricingStrategies2PricingStrategies2.1New-productPricingStrategies2.2Price-adjustmentStrategiesChapter11PricingStrategies2.1New-productPricingStrategiesPricingstrategiesusuallychangeastheproductpassesthroughitslifecycle.Theintroductorystageisespeciallychallenging.Companiesbringingoutanewproductfacethechallengeofsettingpricesforthefirsttime.Theycanchoosetheirstrategies:●market-skimmingpricing●market-penetrationpricingChapter11PricingStrategies●Definition:settingahighpriceforanewproducttoskimmaximumrevenueslayerbylayerfromthesegmentswillingtopaythehighprice.●Appliedconditionsofmarketskimming:firstly,theproduct’qualityandimagemustsupportitshigherprice,andthereareenoughbuyersatthelevelofhigherprice.secondly,thecostsofproducingasmallervolumecannotbesohighthattheycounteracttheadvantageofhigherprice.finally,competitorsshouldnotbeabletoenterthemarketeasilyandundercutthehighprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.1.1market-skimmingpricingChapter11PricingStrategies2.1.2Market-penetrationpricing●Definition:settingalowpriceforanewproductinordertoattractalargenumberofbuyersandalargemarketshare.●Appliedconditionsofmarket-penetration:firstly,themarketmustbehighlypricesensitivesothatalowpriceresultsinmoresellinggrowth.secondly,productionanddistributioncostsmustfallassalesvolumeincreases.finally,thelowpricemusthelpkeepoutthecompetition,andpenetrationpricemustmaintainitslow-priceposition.Otherwise,thepriceadvantagemaybeonlytemporary.Acompany’spricingdecisionsareaffectedbybothinternalcompanyfactorsandexternalenvironmentalfactors.Besidescostanddemand,otherexternalfactors,suchaseconomicsituations,policies,lawsandregulationsaswellassocialconcernsalsoinfluencepricealot.Insettingprices,acompany’sshort-termsales,marketshare,andprofitgoalsmayhavetobetempered〔调理〕bybroadlysocietalconsiderations.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2Price-adaptationStrategiesChapter11PricingStrategies2.2Price-adaptationStrategiesCompaniesusuallyadjusttheirbasicpricestoaccountforvariouscustomerdifferencesandchangingsituations.2.2.1GeographicalPricing(地理定价)2.2.2PriceDiscountsandAllowance(价钱折扣和折让)2.2.3PromotionalPricing(促销定价)2.2.4DiscriminatoryPricing(差别定价)2.2.5Product-MixPricing(产品组合定价)Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2Price-adaptationStrategiesGeographicalpricing：Adjustingpricestoaccountforthegeographiclocationofcustomers.Itsformsareasfollows:●FOB-originpricing〔freeonboard〕●uniform-deliveredpricing(一致价)●zonepricing●basing-pointpricing●freight-absorptionpricing〔含运费〕Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.1GeographicalpricingInternationalpricing:Adjustingpricesforinternationalmarkets.Thepricethatacompanyshouldchargeinaspecificcountrydependsonmanyfactors,includingeconomicconditions,lawsandregulations,anddevelopmentofthewholesalingandretailingsystem.Consumerperceptionsandpreferences(觉得与偏好)alsomayvaryfromcountrytocountry,callingfordifferentprices.2.2.1GeographicalpricingChapter11PricingStrategiesDiscountandallowancepricing:Mostcompaniesadjusttheirbasicpricetorewardcustomersforcertainresponses,suchasearlypaymentofbills,volumepurchases,andoff-seasonbuying.Itsformsareasfollow:●cashdiscount●quantitydiscount●functionaldiscount●seasonaldiscount●allowancesChapter11PricingStrategies2.2.2DiscountandallowancepricingPromotionalpricing:Temporarilyreducingprices,sometimesevenbelowcost,toincreaseshort-runsales.Itsformsareasfollows:●discounts●special-eventpricing●cashrebates●low-interestfinancing●longerwarranties●freemaintenanceAttention:usedtoofrequentlyandcopiedbycompetitors,pricepromotionscancreate“deal-prone〞customerswhowaituntilbrandsgoonsalebeforebuyingthem.Or,constantlyreducedpricescanerode(腐蚀)abrand’svalueintheeyesofcustomers.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.3PromotionalPricing2.2.3PromotionalPricingLoss-LeaderPricingSpecial-EventPricingCashRebatesLow-InterestFinancingLong-TermPaymentWarrantiesandServiceContractsPsychologicalDiscountingChapter11PricingStrategiesPsychologicalpricing:Adjustingpricesaccordingtopsychologicaleffect.Forexample,onestudyoftherelationshipbetweenpriceandqualityperceptionsofcarsfoundthatconsumersperceivehigher-pricedcarsashavinghigherquality.Anotheraspectofpsychologicalpricingisreferenceprices---pricesthatbuyerscarryintheirmindsandrefertowhenlookingatagivenproduct.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.3PromotionalPricingSegmentedpricing:sellingaproductorserviceattwoormoreprices,wherethedifferenceinpricesisnotbasedondifferenceincosts.Adjustingpricestoallowfordifferencesincustomers,products,orlocations.ItsFormsareasfollow:●customer-segmentpricing●locationpricing●product-formpricing●timepricingcertainconditionsmustexistforsegmentedpricing.1themarketmustbesegmentable,2thesegmentsmustshowdifferentdegreeofdemandChapter11PricingStrategies2.2.4DiscriminatoryPricingCustomer-SegmentPricing(公司顾客细分定价)Product-FormPricing(产品式样定价)ImagePricing(笼统定价)LocationPricing(地点定价)TimePricing(时间定价)Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.4DiscriminatoryPricing2.2.5Product-MixPricingProduct-LinePricing(产品线定价法)Optional-FeaturePricing(选择特征定价法)Captive-ProductPricing(附带产品定价法)ByproductPricing(副产品定价法)Product-BundlingPricing(捆绑定价法)Chapter11PricingStrategies●Define:Settingpricestepsbetweenproductlineitems.●Strategies:apricesystemofproductlineitemsdoesn't'tbreakthebalanceofbuyer’imagineaboutproductgrades,customerevaluationsofdifferentfeatures,andcompetitors’prices.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.5.1productlinepricing●Define:Pricingoptionaloraccessoryproductssoldwiththemainproduct.●Strategies:thepricesofoptionaloraccessoryproductsofareusuallyhigherthantheirmainproduct.Productbundlepricing●DefinePricingbundlesofproductssoldtogether●Strategies:combiningseveralproductsandofferingthebundleatareducedprice.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.5.2Optional-Featurepricing

●settingapriceforproductsthatmustbeusedalongwithamainproduct,suchasbladesforarazorandfilmforacamera.By-productpricing●settingapriceforby-productsinordertomakethemainproducts’pricemorecompetitive.Chapter11PricingStrategies2.2.5.3Captive-productpricing

3InitiatingandRespondingtoPriceChange3.1InitiatingPriceCuts3.2InitiatingPriceincreases3.3RespondingtoCompetitor´sPriceChanges3.4Commonmethodofpriceadjustment3.5QuestionsconsideredbeforerespondingtoapricechangeChapter11PricingStrategies3.1InitiatingPriceCuts

Chapter11