中美葬礼仪式的跨文化探究

Introduction1.1ResearchBackgroundItisinevitableformankindtofacedeath,whichisacompulsorycourseforeveryone.Deathitselfissomysteriousthatalmosteveryonewantstoknowitmore.Sincetheemergenceofhumanculture,theyhavebeenrevealdeathconstantlythroughvariousways.Eventually,thefuneralbecameanexcessofdeath.Differentregionshavedifferentcultures,soeachplacepresentsdifferentfuneralculture.Becausedifferentfuneralritualsshowculturaldifferences,differentculturalbackgroundsofChinaandAmericaleadtodifferentfuneralrituals.OnthebasisofHofstede’sculturaldimensions,thispaperanalysesthecausesofthedifferencesinfuneralritualsbetweenChinaandAmerica.Finally,theauthorsummarizedthereasonswhythefuneralritualsofthetwocountriesaredifferent.1.2TheSignificanceoftheStudyLifeanddeatharetwoimportantsubjectsinone’slife.Whenweareborn,wehavetofacetheinevitableresultofdeath.Weareboundtodiefromthemomentweareborn.Themysteryofdeathhasneverbeensolved.Tounderstandtheeternaltopicoflifeanddeath,weshouldlearnthematterofdeath.What’smore,throughouthumanhistoricculture,itisfoundthattheconceptoflifeanddeathhasinheritanceineachculture.Theissuesoflifeanddeatharediscussedatthereligious,moralandphilosophicallevelsareinterspersedineveryculture.ChinaandAmericahavedifferentinterpretationabouttheconceptofdeath,whichisoneofthereasonsforthedifferentfuneralritualsbetweentwocountries.Funeralsarepartofsocialcustomsanditisaceremonyforeveryonetoattendinthefuture.Funeralshavespecialmeaningforeveryone,soitisvitaltowritethispapertoanalyzethedifferencesofthefuneralritualsinChinaandAmerica.East-Westculturalconflictsalsooftenoccurininternationalcommunication.Inconsequence,studythiscontenthaspracticalvalue.Peoplecanavoidculturalconflictsincross-culturalcommunication.AnalyzingthedifferentfuneralsbetweenChinaandAmericawillbeconduciveforpeopletobetterunderstandthevaluesofthecultures,andalsotoenhancetheidentityofChineseculture.Cross-culturalstudiesnotonlyseekculturaldiversity,butalsoenrichourunderstandingofourculture.1.3TheQuestionsandObjectivesoftheStudyOnthebasisofcross-culturalcommunication,thispaperfindsoutthepotentialcausesaboutthedifferencesinfuneralritualsanddiscussestheculturaldiversitybetweenChineseandAmericancultures.However,therearesomedifficultiesinthisstudy.Theviewoflifeanddeathiscloselyrelatedtophilosophyandreligion,whichextremelytesttheauthor’scomprehensiveability.Howtoanalyzetheculturalcausesfordifferentviewoflifeanddeathwithoutfallingintophilosophicandreligiousissuesisindeedatoughquestion.Incaseofthesedilemmas,thispaperfocusesonHofstede’sculturaldimensionstofindthereasonsaboutthedistinctionsinfuneralritualsbetweenChinaandAmerica.1.4TheStructureoftheThesisThispaperisdividedintofourparts.Thefirstpartisashortintroductionthatprobablyintroducestheresearchbackground,thesignificanceofthestudy,thequestionsandobjectivesofthestudy,andthestructureofthepaper.Thesecondpartisthetheoreticalbasisofthisthesis,throughHofstede’sculturaldimensionstheorytofindoutthedifferencesinfuneralritualsbetweenChinaandAmerica.Inthispaper,theauthormainlytakesadvantageoffourculturaldimensions;individualismandcollectivism,powerdistance,masculinityandfemininity,long-termandshort-termorientation.ThethirdpartmainlytakesHofstede’sculturaldimensionstheoryastheguidancetoanalyzethedeepreasonsforthedifferencesinfuneralritualsbetweenChinaandAmerica.Thefourthpartistheconclusion.Inthispart,theauthormakesabriefsummaryofthefirstthreeparts,indicatestheshortcomingsofthispaper,andmakesrecommendationstothefutureresearch.TheoreticalBasis2.1TheTheoryofHofstede’sCulturalDimensions“Hofstede’sworkwasoneoftheearliestattemptstouseextensivestatisticaldatatoexamineculturalvalues”(Samovar,2000:66).AccordingtoHofstede,aparticularcultureinfluencesthethoughtsandbehaviorsofpeoplewholiveinthatculture.Hofstede’smodelplaysavitalroleinthestudyofculturalcomparisonbecauseitorganizesculturaldifferencesintoall-encompassingpatternsandleadstotherapidexpansionofculturalandtrans-culturalstudiesinthenext20years.ThispaperwillfindouttheculturaldistinctionsofthefuneralsritualsbetweenChinaandAmericabymakinguseofculturaldimensionsaboutindividualismandcollectivism,powerdistance,masculinityandfemininity,long-termandshort-termorientation.2.1.1IndividualismandCollectivismSomeacademicsthinkthatindividualismisoneofthecharacteristicsofmodernsociety,whilecollectivismisthetypicalcharacteristicoftraditionalsociety(Trompenaars,1997:52).Peoplecanseeinwesternculture,individualismistheembodimentoflifephilosophy.Individualismfocusesonrealizingindividualvaluesandpursingfreedom.Thecoreideaofindividualismistoputpeoplefirst;thegovernmentpreferstoprotecttheindividualinterestsoverthecollectiveinterests.IndividualismhasdeeplyaffectedAmericanculture.Inindividualisticcultures,theyfocusmoreonpersonalachievementsandhaveastrongsenseofthemselves.Theytendtoexpresstheirideasdirectlyandarethereforesometimesconsideredambitious.Incollectivistculture,peoplemorefocusontheunityofgroupratherthanthevalueoftheindividualandtheywouldliketomaintainaharmoniousrelationwithothers.Thereisnothingmoreshamefulthanbeingostracizedandsecludedfromagroup.Incollectivistculture,“we”consciousnessdominates.OnthebasisofHofstede,HarryTriandissummedupthefeaturesofindividualismandcollectivism,asshowninthefollowingtable,whichisbeneficialtothereaders.IndividualismCollectivismIndividualautonomyGroupunityandharmonySelf-orientedGroup-orientedPersonalgoalsGroupgoalsUniqueandindependentConformingandinterdependentIndividualprivacyGroupbelongingNuclearfamilyExtendedfamilyIndividualrewards(equality)EqualdistributionofrewardsCompetitionCooperation2.1.2PowerDistanceOnthebasicviewsofHofstede,powerdistanceisdefinedas“theextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersofinstitutionsandorganizationswithinacountryexpectandacceptthatpowerisdistributedunequally”(Hofstede,1980:28).Incultureswithlargepowerdistance,peoplefocusmoreonpower.Theythinkthattherealityoflifeispowerandauthority.Thecorrectpositionforeachpersonisdeterminedbytheverticalarrangements.Largepowerdistanceandinequalitybetweenpeopleareacceptable.Thiskindofsocietyreallyemphasizestheimportanceofauthoritysothatpeoplehaveastrongsenseofsocialhierarchy.Therealwaysexistsinequalitybetweenthetopandthebottom.Inaddition,parentsinthiscultureteachtheirchildrentoesteemandsubmittheirelders.Thesymbolofprivilegesandstatusisprevalentinthissociety.Instead,acultureofsmallpowerdistanceleadsitsmemberstodeemthatinequalityshouldbedecreasedasmuchaspossible.Forthem,everyonehastherighttoaccesspower.Hofstedebelievedthatinasmall-power-distanceculture,inequalityamongmembersshouldbeminimized.Thepeoplewithlesspowerandmorepowerareinterdependent,andtheirawarenessofsocialclassandhierarchyisweak.2.1.3MasculinityandFemininityInamasculinitysociety,menareconsideredtoself-assurance,muscular,andmateriallyrich,whilewomenshouldbehumble,mild,andcaremoreaboutthequalityoflife.Inthefemininitysociety,bothmaleandfemaleshouldbehumble,tender,andcareaboutthequalityoflife(Hofstede,1980:83).Theculturaldimensionincludesmalecultureandfemaleculture.Inamale-dominatedsociety,theamountofwealthandreputationdeterminewhetheramanissuccessfulornot.Thesocietyplacesmoreemphasisonfairnessandcompetition.Peoplepaymoreattentiontoworkperformance;theythinkthatthelifeisshortandshouldtaketimetoachievemore.Inthisculture,mencompetefiercelywithothersforwealthandreputation,whilewomenarerestrictedtodoinghousework.Therefore,thereisinequalitybetweenmenandwomen.However,infeminineculture,itiscommonformenandwomentohaverelativelyequalrelationshipathomeandfamilyandatwork.Incountrieswithstrongfemininity,peoplecaremoreaboutthequalityoflife.Thereisnoneedformentobeoverconfidentandassertive;womenhavemorefreedomtodowhatevertheywant.Theydonotneedtodohousework.Mendonothavetostayawayfromwomensothattheycandiscussandtalkwitheachotherinabeautifulenvironment.2.1.4Long-termOrientationandShort-termOrientationThisdimensionrepresentstheeducationandinfluenceofConfucianism.Initsspecialsense,thisdimensionisaperson'slong-termandshort-termopinionoflife.Long-termorientationisthetypicalfeaturesofConfucianism,whichshowsthespiritofhardworkandactivelyexploresenthusiasm.Thenatureoflong-termorientationsocietyistenacity;nomatterhowroughthegoal,peopleinlong-termorientationculturewillnotbeeasilydefeated.Intheirview,thereisnoabsolutetruthintheworld,becausetruthconstantlychangingwithtime,environmentandsituation.Long-termorientationculturescaremoreaboutfrugality,insistenceandhonor.Buttheshort-termorientationincludesotherConfucianideas,forinstance,peopleshouldnotbetooheadstrongandshouldpayattentiontotheimmediatethings.Inashort-termorientationculture,peoplearemorefocusonthepresentinsteadofthefuture.Theyconsiderthattheyshouldgraspandenjoythepresenttime.2.2DifferentAspectsofFuneralRitualsinChinaandAmerica2.2.1DifferencesinObituaryAnobituaryisadeathmessagesendstorelativesandfriendsofthedeceased,withabriefintroductionofthedeceased.Inevitably,thereexistdifferencesofobituarybetweenChinaandAmerica.HerearetwotypicalobituariesofAmericanandChinesetoindicatethedistinctionsbetweenthem.PleaselookatoneexampleoftheobituaryinAmerican-style:CatherineFields,aretiredcaregiver,diedonFebruary2,2002,ofcomplicationsfromastroke.Mrs.FieldswasbornonNovember10,1933,whoisthemotheroftwodaughters,andshehassevengrandchildrenwith12great-grandchildren.Hercharmingpersonalityattractedpeoplefromdifferentethnicbackgroundstobeherfriends.Shewasfullofvitality,loveslifeandlovestotravel.Nomatterhowconfusingtheideaofdeathmaybe,MotherFieldsoftenprovestoothersthatdeathisapartofGod’splanandthereisnothingtofear.ThechurchwillholdamemorialserviceonTuesday.PleaselookatoneexampleoftheobituaryinChinese-style:Mrs.Wang,aretiredteacher,diedofaheartattackonMay5,2006.Shetaughtfirstgradeandkindergarten.Inthe1970s,Mrs.Wangloveseducation,anditisestimatedthatduringherteachingcareer,shehaspassedonherpassionforlearningtomorethan2500students.Aftersheretiredin1983,Mrs.Wangcontinuedtocreateanddonateteachingmaterialsforlocalschoolsandstudents.Shehasmadeanimportantcontributiontobusinesseducationandhernoblecharactersarevaluableassettous.Weareingreatpainbecausewelostagreatperson.Wewillalwaysrememberher.TherewillbethefuneralonSundayatthefuneralhome.Wewouldliketothankyouforyourpresence.Obviously,bothobituariesdescribethedeceased’sfamilybackgrounds,suchastheirworkandcontributions.Thefirstobituaryfocusesmoreonthelivelycharacterandinterestinghobbiesofthedeceased.Onthecontrary,thesecondobituaryfocusesmoreonthedeceased’scontributionstoherstudentsandherschoolinordertoexpresstheirsympathyandcondolences.Intheiropinion,thedeathofMrs.Wangisagreatlosstosociety.Finally,theycalledonotherstolearnfromher.Fromthesetwoobituaries,wecanseethattheAmericanobituaryisself-centered,whileChineseobituaryisgroup-centered,whichisundoubtedlycausedbythedifferentvalueandoutlookonlifeoftwocountries.2.2.2DifferencesinFuneralProcessIntheAmericanculture,thefamilyusuallyholdsanopencoffinvigilatthefuneralhomefrom6:00p.m.to9:00p.m.Thisisaperiodoftimeonthenightbeforethefuneraltovisitthebodyofthedeceased.Churchpriestrequiresfamilymemberstostandstillinaprominentpositionnexttothecoffinandgreetvisitors.Peopleatfuneralsusuallystandinfrontofthecoffintosaygoodbyeandsilentlyprayforthedeceased.Friendsandchurchmemberswerestrategicallysitindifferentplaces,comfortingsadfamiliesandsharinggoodmemories.Then,undertheguidanceofthepriest,alltheparticipantsenteredthechurchtopaytheirlastrespectstothedeceased.Forexample,sometimes,achildrenorgrandchildrenofadeceasedwillreadapoemorarticlewrittenbythemtoclarifythemeaningofthedeceased.Aftertheburialandcemeteryservices,family,friends,andsomefuneralstaffwillhaveasimpledinnerinthechurch’sfellowshiphall(郭金秀,2009(10):45).However,ChinesefuneralprocessismorecomplicatedthanAmerica,whichisdeeplyaffectedbyTaoismandConfucianism.AccordingtotheChinese,funeralmustbeheldceremoniouslytoavoidbeinglabeledasimpious.Asageneralrule,atypicalChinesefuneralhasfourprocesses:BaoMiao,SongTang,ChuBinandYuanFen.InthestageofBaoMiao,oncethedeathisconfirmed,thedaughter-in-lawwillnotifyallfamilymembersandfriendsbyphonesordeliverthemessagethroughpersonalvisits.Then,tellalltherelativesandfriendstocomeheretomourn;AfterBaoMiao,theriteofSongTangisheld.SongTangmeanstosendmealtothetempleinalinebythesequencefromtheoldestsontotheyoungestson,frommentowomen;ChuBinistheclimaxofthefuneral,whichisthelastchancetoseethedeceased,becausewhentheburialpitisfilled,theywillneverseetheirrelativesagain,onlythegraveformourning;AfterthethirddayofChuBin,allthemalemembersofthefamilyshouldbringfood,fruitandanyothertributestothegrave,thentheyburnpapermoneyandcryinfrontofthetomb.TheendofYuanFenmeansthefuneralisalmostcompleted(陈文华,2007).2.2.3DifferencesinFuneralToolsIntypicalChinesefuneral,whenapersondies,thedeadwillbewearingtheshroud,ahatandshoespreparedbyrelatives.AffectedbyTaoismandBuddhism,Chinesepeoplethoughttheywouldbesenttocoldandwetgrave,sothedeadhadtowearquilts,hatandshoestoprotectthemfromthecold.PaperproductsarewidelyusedinChinesefuneral.Allpaperproductswillbeburntatthefuneral,whichisrelatedtotwooppositenaturelawsYinandYang.PaperproductsmainlyincludeMingBi(papermoney),banners,houses,televisionsandcars,whichareneededbythedeadintheunknownworld(张捷夫,2011).ChristianityaffectsAmericanfunerals,thus,almostallfuneralequipmentareboundupwithreligiousactivities,includingholywater,candlesandcrosses.WaterisanimportantimageinWesternculture.Peopleareconvincedthatmenareguiltyfrombirth,andthattheonlywaytogetridofthesinistobebaptized.CandlehastwomeaningsinWesternculture:onerepresentsfire,theotherrepresentsbrightness.Thefunctionoffireandwateristopurifyhumansoul.Asforbrightness,Godisbrightness.BeingwithbrightnessisequaltobeingwithGod.InChristianculture,crossisregardedasaninvincibleweapon,freefromevilspirits.ThecrossinfuneralshowedthatthedeadisaChristian(段琦,2000).2.2.4DifferencesinFuneralAttendanceWhenaChinesepersondies,hisimmediatefamily,distantrelativesandafictivefamilyandallkindsoffriendscanbeinvitedtothefuneral.Generalspeaking,Chineseschedulefuneralsaweekormoretimeafterdeath,sothatrelativeswhohavecomefromfarawaycanattend.Allfamilymembers,closefriends,evenacquaintanceswilltrytheirbesttoattendthefuneral.Thepresenceisconsideredanabsoluteobligation.Althoughparticipantsmaynotberelatedtothedeceasedindividual,thecommunitytiesarestrong.Attendingafuneralisawayofshowingrespecttothedeceasedandhisorherfamily.AtChinesefuneral,specialpractitioners,forinstance,soldiers,jailed,orimprisonedfamilymembers,arealsoconsideredhowtoattend.InAmerica,whensomeonediesinanAmericanfamily,thecompanyoffamiliesandfriendsisalsoimportant.Butthereisgreatfamilyandsocialstressforpeopletotakepartinafuneral,whichisanexpectationwithoutregardtofamilialrelationship.Themajorityofpoliciespermitpeopletoaskforleavetoparticipateinafuneral,whileAmericansoftenlackthatkindofsocioculturalexpectations.ComparedwithChinesefuneral,fewpeoplekneelingdownorkowtowinAmericankinshipmodel.Atfunerals,theyoftenstandsolemnly,sobquietlyorremainsilent.Imprisonedmembersmaybeallowedtowritealetter,poem,orexpressionforreadingatthefuneralwhentheyareunabletoattendinperson.3.AnalysisofDifferentFuneralRitualswithCulturalDimensions3.1AnalysisfromthePerspectiveofIndividualismandCollectivismAsHofstedesaid,cultureisaprocessofevolution.GreatchangeshavehappeninChinesecultureinrecentyears.ButthereisnodenyingthatChinesecultureisstillacollectiveculture.Asaresult,Chinesepeoplestillpaymoreattentionto“we”.InChina,“We”meansthatpeoplearegroup-centered,notself-centered.Whenpersonalinterestsconflictwithgroupinterests,thereisnodoubtthatChinesewillsacrificetheirpersonalintereststogiveprioritytogroupinterests.Therefore,theobituariesinChinaaregroup-centered,oftenemphasizingthededicationsandsacrificeofthedeceasedmadeforthegroup.Thepriorityof“we”alsoshowsthatChineseshouldbemodest.InChineseobituaries,peopletendtoexpresstheirwillingnesstolearnfromthedeceased.Incontrast,Americais“I”firstsociety.“I”firstmakesAmericansfocusontheirowndevelopmentandinterests.ThisillustrateswhyAmericanobituariesaredeceased-centeredandtendtospeakfromtheperspectiveofthedeceased.Americanobituariestrytoemphasizethepersonallifeofthedeceased:hisorherhobbies,personalities,lifeexperiences.Chinadefinethein-groupsandout-groupsbybloodties,interests,educationbackground.OnthebasisofHofstede,incollectivistculture,apersongainshisidentitythroughothersin-groups,whomustalwaysbeloyaltohisin-groups(Hofstede,1991:50).InChinesetraditionalcognition,aperson'slifeanddeathisconnectedwithhisfamilyandsocialstatus.Therefore,therelationshipinthetraditionalfuneralandfamilyorganizationsareindivisible.InChinesefuneral,thefamilymembersofthedeadarereadyforallfuneraltoolsandpresidethewholeceremony.WhileinAmericanculture,thedifferencesofin-groupsandout-groupsissoweakthatisnotnoticedbypeople.Theyfocusmoreonpersonalityandpersonalsuccess.Americanpeoplethinkeveryoneisequal.ComparedwithChinesefuneral,Americanfuneralisnotcomplicated(Stewart,2005).Theyoftenfollowwishesofthedeceasedtoholdthefuneral.Forinstance,theycanplaymusicthatthedeceasedlovedandchoosewhatthedeadlikedflowertodecoratethefuneralhome.Theymorevaluethewillofindividual.Americanfuneralsareusuallybeheldinchurches,whichplayavitalroleinthewholeprocessoffuneral.Thefamilyentrusteverythingtothechurchwithallmatters.WhetherthedeadisaChristian,ornot,thechurchisalwaysinvolvedinthroughout.Allfuneraltoolsarepreparedbythechurch.Thewholefuneralwaspresidesoverandorganizedbythepastorofthechurch,andthefamiliesonlydiditaccordingtothepastor’srequest.ForAmericans,funeralmakespeoplefrombodilytospirit.Thefuneralsembodythespiritandconsecratethebody.TheybelievethatchurchhandsthepersonovertoGod.Itisasensethatthechurchistogetherhere,insupportofthefamilywhoselovedoneshavegone.TheaboveanalysisillustratesthedistinctionsinfuneralbehaviorbetweenChinaandAmerica,whicharemainlyreflectedintheaspectsofobituaries,funeralprocess,funeraltools,andfuneralattendance.Chinesepeopletendtoconsiderlifeasaresponsibility,orobligationtothefamilyandsociety.Americanthinklifeisacourseofenjoyment;theywouldliketopursuethesoul’simmortality.3.2AnalysisfromthePerspectiveofPowerDistancePowerdistanceissopervasiveevenitcanbediscoveredineverywhere.“Everyculturehasitsownvalueorientationstoappropriateandacceptthedifferencesofstatusandsocialhierarchies”(Lustig,2006:113).Ontheissueofpowerdistance,ChinaandAmericahavetotallydifferentattitudes.ChineseculturetendstolargepowerdistancebutAmericanculturetendstosmallpowerdistance,whichleadstodifferentrituals.Instead,Americansaremoreinclinedtosuchasociety,whodoesnotvaluethesocialstatus,sothepowerdistancebetweenpeopleisnotobvious.Americansareusedtotreatingothersequally,anditisrarethatseniorofficialsaregivenspecialrightsorprivileges(Kalish,2006).Therefore,thepowerdistancehaslittleinfluenceontheirmindsandbehaviorswhentheyholdafuneral.Asaresult,Americanobituariesrarelycelebratethegreatnessorcontributionsofthedeceasedtothesociety.Theytendtorememberthegoodtimestheyspenttogether.Thecultureoflarge-power-distancehasmanydifferencesfromthecultureofsmall-power-distance,oneofwhichisthedistinctionofequalityandinequality.Ifaculturedenieslargepowerdistance,thisculturetendstopursuitequality,butifitkeepsaffirmslargepowerdistance,thisculturetendstoinequality.InChina,people’sviewsonthemareoftenunequalbecauseofdifferenttimeoflife,familybackgroundsandpersonalexperiences,andtheeducationlevel.Itisacommonphenomenonthatthefamilyalwaysteachtheyoungertobegladlyserveunderandrespecttheirelders(Hofstede1991:37).Intheviewofelders,theyoungergenerationshouldbetakencareofandprotected.Consequently,inChina,thereisinequalitybetweentheeldersandtheyounger.Soinequalityisreflectedinfunerals.Ifthedeceasedisanelder,youngerparticipantsshouldgodownontheirkneelsandkowtowtoshowtheirrespects.Intheprocessoffuneral,theyusuallycryloudlytoexpresstheirunwillingnesstoseparatefromthedeceased.However,inAmerica,thesituationistotallydifferent.ManyAmericansbelievethatallpeoplearecreatedequal,sotheoldandtheyounginAmericanadapttotreateachotherequally.Theydonotconcentrateonage,lifebackgrounds,lifeexperiencesoranythingelse,soitcompletelydiffersfromtheChinesetradition.Americaneldersandthejuniorsthinkthattheyarecreatedequalandtheydeserveequalrights.Asaresult,Americansareunlikelytogodowntheirkneelsandkowtow.Theyoftenpauseandwailquietly(Markus,1991).Theywouldliketokeepaquietfuneralsothatthesoulofthedeadwouldnotbespooked.3.3AnalysisfromthePerspectiveofMasculinityandFemininityIntraditionalChina,menplayanimportantroleinsociety;buwomenarerestrictedtoavarietyofdomestictasks.ThiskindofgenderconceptaffectsalmosteveryChinese.Chinesecultureisdominatedbymasculineculture,wheremenarearbitraryandbossy.Chinesemen“areexpectedtobeconfident,strong,andrichinmaterials”(Hofstede,1991:82).Theyactivelycompetewithothersinordertoachievesuccessandwinrecognition.InChina,menaresuperiortowomen.Menshoulddominateeverythingandmakefinaldecisions.Asaresult,inChina,itisoftenmenwhodecideoncoffins,tombstoneandotherfuneralsupplies.Thewifeofthedeceasedmustwearmourningdresses.Shecanonlywearwhiteclothes,whiteshoesandwhiteheadscarves;sometimes,sheisrequiredtowearawhitemourningapparel,godownherkneelswithkowtowingtoherhusband.Itisregardedasthehighestformforrespectingthedead(郭灿辉,2015:52-54).Asadaughterordaughter-in-law,shealsoneedstocarryoutthehighestetiquette.Onthecontrary,menarenotboundedbytheserestrictions.Onthedayofyuanfen,womenareprohibitedtoenterthetomb,andonlymalerelativesarepermittedtoparticipateinthispart.Fromanotherperspective,AmericancultureismorefemininethanChineseculture.InAmerica,menarenotadvocatedtobeimperiousorarbitrary,butwomenareencouragegettoobtainthelifetheydream.MenandwomenlivinginAmericahavemoreequalrelationshipthanthoseinChina.“Americansarealwaysonthewaytopursuegenderequality;theyseldomprescribebehaviorsonthebaseofsexes”(Lustig,2006:123).Consequently,thereisnothinginstatusbetweenmenandwomeninAmericanfunerals.Asmentionedearlier,Americansthinkeverymaniscreatedequal,sothereisnorestrictiononwhoshouldparticipateinfuneral.Allmenandwomenshouldattendthefuneralceremony.3.4AnalysisfromthePerspectiveofLong-termOrientationandShort-termOrientationAnotherimportantculturaldimensionislong-termorientationandshort-termorientationgivenbyHofstedein1995.Thesignificancedistinctionbetweenlong-termorientationandshort-termorientationisthattheformeremphasizesfuturereturn,butthelatteremphasizespresentinterests(Hofstede,1991:229).Chinesecultureisalong-termorientationculturesbutAmericancultureisashort-termorientation.Thedistinctionoflong-termorientationandshort-termorientationisakeyfactorforthedifferentfuneralbehaviorsbetweenChinaandAmerica.PeopleinChinesecultureputmoreemphasisonlong-termorientation.Chinesepeoplearecharacterizedbynaturaltenacity,whichmeanstheyaredeterminedtopursuefuturereturnsandtheyarewillingtosacrificethepresentforfutureinterests.Chinesearealwayshesitatedandtendtoconsiderfuturefactorsbecauseofthisculturalimpact.Almostalloftheimmediateandextendedfamilymemberswillattendt