神经语言学和心理语言学-(课堂PPT)

Chapter12LanguageandtheBrain1

TwoBranchesofLinguisticsNeurolinguistics神经语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Traditionally,linguistspaymoreattentiontolanguagesystemitself.Now,thetechnologicaladvancesenablesmoreinvestigationofthehumanbrainandlanguageprocessing.

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NeurolinguisticsNeurolinguisticsisthestudyoftworelatedareas:languagedisordersandtherelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.Itincludesresearchinto

HowthebrainisstructuredWhatfunctioneachpartofthebrainperformsHowandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstoredHowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage3

ThefocusofthisSectionAbriefsurveyofthebrainstructureanditsfunctionThemethodsusedinthestudyofthebrainintermsofevidecesforlateralization(referringtocognitivefunctionscontrolledeitherbytheleftortherightsideofthebrain)（边侧性）Thedifferenttypesoflanguagedisturbancethatresultfromthebraindamage4

ThebiologicalfoundationsoflanguageByfar,humanbeingsaretheonlyspeciesthatpossesslanguageability.Ourlinguisticabilityisabiologicalgiftofthespecies’sgeneprogram.5

SpeechorgansTheseorgansconsistoflips,teeth,tongue,oralcavity,nasalcavity,palate(硬腭),velum(软腭),pharynx(咽),epiglottis(会厌),vocalcord(声带),pulmoniccavity(肺腔)andsoon.Humanteethupright,notslantingoutwards,thetopandthebottomsetscanmeetLipsmuscleswhichshowmoreintricateinterlacingthanthoseofotheranimalsmouthrelativelysmall,canopenandshutrapidlytonguethick,muscularandflexibleenoughtogetintouchwithotherpartsoftheoralcavity.6

Thestructureandfunctionofthehumanbraincartoonweight:1,400gramsComponent:tenbillionnervecellscalledneuronandbillionsoffibersthatconnecttheseneurons.Neuron:thebasicinformationprocessingunitsofthenervoussystem7

TwosectionsofthebrainThelowersection：

thebrainstemthehighersection:

cerebrum8

thebrainstemConnectingtothespinalcord（脊椎）

andsharedbyallanimals,keepsthebodyalivebymaintainingtheessentialfunctionssuchasrespiration,heartrate,andmuscleco-ordination9

CerebrumThecerebrumthatdiffersindifferentspeciesisnotessentialforlife.小脑皮层Gyrus脑回Sulcus回间沟Fissure裂缝10

CerebralCortexThecerebralcortexisthedecision-makingorganofthebodyandstorehouseof“memory”.Itreceivesmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandinitiatesallvoluntaryactions.Itisthecerebralcortexthataccountsforthehumandistinctnessintheanimalworldanditiswithinthehumancortextthatthesecretsoflanguagerepresentationandprocessingaretobefound.Animals,reptilesandamphibianshavenocortexatall.11

CerebralhemispheresTheleftandtherightbrainThemainconnectionbetweenthemisabundleofnervefibresknownasthecorpuscallosum胼胝体,apathwayleadingonetoanother,allowingthetwohemispherestocommunicatewitheachother.Eachhemisphereofthehumanbrainisresponsiblefordifferentfunctions.Eachhemispherecontrolstheoppositehalfofthebodyintermsofmusclemovementandsensation.12

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Thelefthemisphereseemstodobetterinlanguage,rhythmicperception,temporal-orderjudgmentsandmathematicalthinkingTherighthemispheresshowdistinctabilitiesandresponsibilities,complexmentalactivitiessuchaslanguagedonotalwaysfallneatlyintoonehemisphereortheotherbutinvolvethecoordinatedfunctioningofbothhemispheres.15

4lobesofcerebralcortex额叶顶叶颞叶枕叶Responsibleforplanning,prediction,speechanddiscretemovementofthebodyReadingabilityandsensationsAudition,memoryprocessingandsensoryintegrationVisualprocessing16

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Revision

ThestructureofthehumanbrainThreepartsinhumanbrain

(1)brainstem(脑干):keepsthebodyalivebymaintainingtheessentialfunctionssuchasrespiration,heartrate,andmuscleco-ordination.(2)cerebellum(小脑):responsibleforcontrollingbodyequilibriumandregulatingthefunctionofvoluntarymovements.(3)cerebrum(大脑):importantforlanguagepsychologyThesurfaceofthecerebrum:cerebralcortex(大脑皮层)istheinformationprocessinganddecision-makingorganandthebiologicalbasisofhumanpsychology.19

Thestructureofthehumanbrain20

TheimportanceofcerebralcortexItisthecerebralcortexthataccountsforthehumandistinctnessintheanimalworldanditiswithinthehumancortexthatthesecretsoflanguagerepresentationandprocessingaretobefound.

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MajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachcerebralhemisphereSuchlocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledbrainlateralization.LeftcerebralhemisphereRightcerebralhemispherecontroltherightsideofhumanbodylanguageandspeechanalyticreasoningtemporalorderingreadingandwritingcalculationassociativethoughtcontroltheleftsideofhumanbodyperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsholisticreasoningvisualandspatialskillsrecognitionofpatternsrecognitionofmusicalmelodiesComplexmentalactivitiesinvolvethecoordinatedfunctioningofbothhemispheres.22

MethodsforthestudyofthebrainandevidencesforlateralizationAutopsystudies验尸MethodstothestudyofthebrainSAT阿米妥纳试验

CTscanning计算机化轴向层面Ｘ射线摄影法

PET阳电子发射X线体层摄影法

MRI磁共振成像

fMRI功能磁共振成像MethodstoexaminethebehaviourassociatedwiththebrainingDichoticlistening双耳分听试验

Splitbrainstudies

裂脑试验23

Autopsystudies(验尸)Ithasbeenandcontinuestobeanimportanttoolintheunderstandingofthebrain.

Method:toexaminethebrainafterthepatient’sdeathinordertofindtherelationshipbetweentheareaofbraindamageandthetypeofdisorderthepatientdisplayedwhilealive.Awomanwithepilepsy癫痫,羊角风Frenchneurologist24

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MethodstothestudyofthebrainCTScanningMRIfMRIDichoticlisteningsplitbrainstudies26

MethodstoexaminethebehaviourassociatedwiththebrainRightearadvantage:Mostpeoplereportthestimuliheardintherightearmoreaccuratelythanthatintheleftone.

Howtoexplainsuchaphenomenon?e.g.thedichoticlisteningresearch

(双耳分听试验)Themajorityofnormalhumanbeingshavespeechlocatedprimarilyinthelefthemisphere.27

Thecerebralhemispheresareconnectedbythecorpuscallosum(胼胝体).Whatmayhappenwhenthebrainissplitsurgically?Informationfromtheleftsideofthebodyisreceivedonlybytherightsideofthebrainandviceversa.Righthemispherecanunderstandandcomprehendinformation,butitismute.Splitbrainstudies

(裂脑试验):theexperimentsthatinvestigatetheeffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognition.Methodstoexaminethebehaviourassociatedwiththebrain28

Verbalinformationprocessingisrealizedmainlythroughanumberoflanguagecenterssituatedinthelefthemisphere.1)Broca’sarea

(布罗卡区)[anteriorlanguagearea]Itliesinthefrontalpartoftheleftbrain.2)Wernicke’sarea

(韦尼克区)[posteriorlanguagearea]ItleansbehindBroca’sarea.3)Angulargyrus

(角形脑回)ItliesfurtherbehindtheWernicke’sarea.Itisbythispartthathumanbeingsmatchaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,nametheobjectsandcomprehendthewrittenlanguage.Languagecenterandaphasia29

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Aphasia

(失语症)Aphasiareferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesions(大脑损伤)causedbyvascularproblems(血管问题),atumour,anaccidentandsoon.Thestudyofaphasiaisbyfarthemostimportanttoolintheinvestigationoflanguageinthebrain.31

Broca’saphasia

(布罗卡失语症)PaulBroca,Frenchdoctor,1861

Anylesionoftheanteriorpartofthelefthemispherewillleadtospeechproductiondifficulties.(expressiveaphasia,non-fluentaphasia)e.g.Yes…ah…Monday…DadandPeter…hospital…andah…Wednesday,nineo’clock…and…ahdoctors…two…er…teeth…yah.

Symptoms:poorarticulationexpressasinglewordatatimeomitarticles,conjunctions,andotherfunctionalwordsomitgrammaticalinflections(--telegraphicspeech)32

Wernicke’saphasia

(韦尼克失语症)CarlWernicke,Germanphysician,1874

Anylesioninleftcortexbehindthecentralsulcus(脑沟)willleadtospeechcomprehensiondeficits.(receptiveaphasia,fluentaphasia)e.g.Colorlessgreenideasaresleepingfuriously.

Symptoms:fastandfluentspeechgoodintonation,pronunciationinappropriatecontentevennonsensedifficultyincomprehension33

Acquireddyslexia

(习得性失读症)Acquireddyslexia:damageinandaroundtheangulargyrusoftheparietallobe(顶叶)oftencausestheimpairmentofreadingandwritingability.Twotypesofacquireddyslexia:1.phonologicaldyslexia(拼音性失读症):patientscanonlyreadwordsthattheyhaveseenbefore.Theyseemtohavelosttheabilitytousespelling-to-soundrule.2.Surfacedyslexia(浅层诵读困难):patientsseemunabletorecognizewordsaswholesbutmustprocessallwordsthroughasetofspelling-to-soundrules.34

Acquireddyslexia

(习得性失读症)35

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PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguisticresearchmethodsFieldworkExperimentalmethodsLinguisticsandlanguageprocessingPhoneticsandphonologyMorphologicalprocessingSyntaxPsycholinguisticmodeling38

PsycholinguisticsInthe1940s,thetermpsycholinguisticscameintobeing.ThepublicationofPsycholinguistics:ASurveyofTheoryandResearchProblems(1954)(byCharlesOsgoodandThomasSebeok)Amilestone,markingthebirthofthenewsciencePsycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Itconcernstherepresentationoflanguageinthemind,theplanning,production,perceptionandcomprehensionofspeech,andlanguageacquisition.39

Thefocusofthissection

Whatdopsycholinguistsdo?Explore:howlanguageisrepresentedandprocessedinthemindHowtheconceptsandprinciplesareusedindifferentlevelsoflanguageprocessingHowspeechisproduced40

PsycholinguisticresearchmethodsFieldworkspoonerisms首音互换ExperimentalmethodsLexicalDecisionTheprimingexperimentTimed-readingexperimentsEyemovementexperimentsEvent-relatedpotentialexperiment41

11.2.1PsycholinguisticresearchmethodsLanguageproductionisaprocessofconversionfromthoughtstospeech.

Easyordifficulttostudy?Why?

Difficulttostudy.Itisalmostimpossibletoobservetheinternalideasortheinvolvedprocesses.Now,languageproductioncanonlybestudiedthroughindirectevidence:1)theanalysisofpausesinspontaneousspeech2)theanalysisofinstancesofspeecherrors(slipsofthetongue)42

Fieldwork:PausesorsilenceAround40%-50%ofanaveragespontaneousutteranceconsistsofpauses.Typesofpauses:breathing&hesitationReasonsforpauses:(Inauguraladdress)1)totakeabreath2)toorganizehisthought3)tofindaproperword4)towaittoseetheeffectofhisspeechonthelistener43

Finding:Speakersdonotnormallypausebetweenclauses;theypauseinsidethem.Conclusion:Thereisoverlappingintheplanningandproductionofclauses.Thatis,webegintoplanthenextclausewhilestillutteringthepresentone.44

Spoonerisms

斯本内现象首音互换WilliamA.Spooner45

WhatisintendedWhatissaid1Isthedeanbusy?Isthebeandizzy?2Isitcustomarytokissthebride?Isitkisstomarytocussthebride?3BigandfatPigandvat4Therearemanyministersinourchurch.Therearemanychurchesinourminister.5.Johnslicedthesalamiwithaknife.Johnslicedaknifewiththesalami.Phonologicalsegmentsorfeatures:1,2,3Wholewordsorevenphrases:4,546

SpeechErrors

slipsoftonguePhonologicalerrorsprimarilyincontentwords,notingrammaticalmorphemes,suchas–s,or–edWordsandlexicalmorphemes(usedfortheconstructionofnewwords,suchasblackinthecompoundblackbirdand–shipinfriendship)maybeinterchanged,butgrammaticalmorphemesmaynotbe;Theintonationcontourremainsunchangedasintheintendedutterances,evenwhenthewordsaredisorderedErrorstendtooccuratonlyonelinguisticlevelperutterance.Thatiswhenapersonclearlysaysthewrongword,thesentenceissyntactically,prosodically,andphonologicallyintact.Alltheseslipsofthetongueprovideevidencethatthemorpheme,ratherthantheword,isthefundamentalbuildingblockofEnglishsentenceproduction.47

Fieldwork:Speecherrorse.g.Youhavehissedmymysterylectures.Isawyoufightaliarinthebackquad.Infact,youhavetastedthewholeworm.(Dr.WilliamSpooner)48

Eighttypesofspeecherrors(PsychologyofLanguage,D.W.Carroll,1986)

石头把玻璃没打碎。黄飞鸿（hui)这个电影真可怖。他在柏林一天工作三星期。TypeExamplesShiftThai’ssoshe’llbereadyincaseshedecidetohitsit

(decidestohit).ExchangeFancygettingyourmodelrenosed(noseremodeled).AnticipationBakemybike(takemybike).PerseverationHepulledthepents(tents)up.AdditionIdidn’texplainthisclarefullyenough(carefully).DeletionI’lljustgetupandmutterintelligibly(un-intelligibly).SubstitutionAtlowspeedsit’stoolight(heavy).BlendThatchildislookingtobespaddled(spanked/paddled).49

Finding:Errorstendtooccuratonlyonelinguisticlevelperutterance.Conclusion:1.Asentencemustbeplannedbeforeitisproduced.2.Themorpheme,ratherthantheword,isthefundamentalbuildingblockofEnglishsentenceproduction.50

ExperimentalmethodsLexicalDecisionTheprimingexperimentTimed-readingexperimentsEyemovementexperimentsEvent-relatedpotentialexperimentWordsorganized,accessedandrepresentedinthemindSentencesprocessed51

Lexicaldecision

(词汇判断)aparticipantseesastringoflettersandisrequiredtodecidewhetherthestringisawordornot.Thetimeisrecorded.Itcanbeusedtomeasurethespeedandaccuracywithwhichwordsinthementallexiconareaccessed.52

Theprimingexperiment

(启动试验):

aparticipantseesastringoflettersandisrequiredtodecidewhetherthestringisawordornot.Butbeforetheappearanceofthetargetword,anotherstimulus(calledprime)ispresented.Thetimeisrecorded.Aim:toknowtowhatextenttheprimeinfluencesthesubject’slexicaldecisionperformanceonthetargetstimulus.Finding:Timesareshorterwhentheprimeisasemanticallyrelatedwordthanwhenitisanunrelatedword.53

primingeffect54

Finding:Longerbar-pressingtimesforprocessingmostnounsandverbsandrelativelylesstimeforfunctionwords.Timed-readingexperiment

限时阅读试验55

Finding:Fixationtimesaretypicallylongerforlessfrequentwords.Fixationaretypicallycentredoncontentwordsthanonfunctionwords.Eyemovementexperiment(眼动试验):Difficultsentencestructurescreatelongerfixationtimeandmoreregressivesaccades.56

Event-relatedpotentialexperiment(ERP)Finding:ERPexperimentshaveshownthatsentenceprocessingisimmediateandonline.Whenreadingasentencewedonotwaituntiltheentirestringiscomplete,butratherconstantlybuildinginterpretationsofthesentenceasitunfolds.Wheneverwhatispresentedtouscontradictsourexpectationsbasedonourgoinginterpretativeprocesses,anegativevoltageisobserved.57

LanguagecomprehensionSpeech→thoughtse.g.Hesaidhewouldresignifnothingchanged.1)perceptuallevel:perceiveindividualspeechsoundscominginacontinuousstring.2)lexicallevel:activateourinternallexiconandretrievethelexicalrepresentationsofthewordsthathavebeenstoredinourlongtermmemory,andthenintegratethemintotheongoinglinguisticcontext.3)sententiallevel:useoursyntacticandsemanticknowledgetobuildinourshort-termmemory.4)discourselevel:relyonprecedingcontexttoidentifythepersonthatherefersto.58

LinguisticsandlanguageprocessingBottom-upprocessingTop-downprocessingItmustbenotedthatthefourlevelsoperateatroughlythesametimeuponlanguageinputandmayinfluencetheoperationofotherlevels.Theyaremutuallydependent.59

ThelevelsoflanguageprocessingPhoneticsandPhonology

cohortmodel

“交股模型”

(《心理学的发展与未来展望》）Morphologicalprocessing

selectionalrestrictionshierarchicalstructureSyntax

gardenpathsentencessentenceambiguity60

Phoneticsandphonologycohortmodel

“交股模型”

(《心理学的发展与未来展望》）Candlecandy,can,cattlecanThephonemeratherthanthesyllableseemstobethefundamentalunitofauditorywordrecognition.However,thesyllableplaysanimportantroleinspeechperception.61

MorphologicalprocessingSelection