自学考试英美国家概况115-132第七章

..

severalgroupnumber,thenwithb±a,=c,cisismethylbtwoverticalboxbetweenofaccuratesize.Per-2~3measurement,suchasproceedsofcvaluesareequalandequaltothedesignvalue,thentheverticalinstallationaccurate.Forexamplea,b,andcvalueswhileonhorizontalverticalerrorsformeasurement,Generalinironanglecodebitatmeasurementlevelpointsgriderrors,specificmethodisfrombaselinetomethylverticalboxcenterlinedistancefora,,tobverticalboxdistanceforb,listcanmeasured

.v.

severalgroupnumber,thenwithb±a,=c,cisismethylbtwoverticalboxbetweenofaccuratesize.Per-2~3measurement,suchasproceedsofcvaluesareequalandequaltothedesignvalue,thentheverticalinstallationaccurate.Forexamplea,b,andcvalueswhileonhorizontalverticalerrorsformeasurement,Generalinironanglecodebitatmeasurementlevelpointsgriderrors,specificmethodisfrombaselinetomethylverticalboxcenterlinedistancefora,,tobverticalboxdistanceforb,listcanmeasured

I

Chapter

'7

Govern

entandA

ministration

TheUnitedKingdomisaconstitutionalmonarchy:

theheadof

Stateisakingoraqueen.Inpractice,theSovereignreigns,but

notrule:theUnitedKingdomisgoverned,inthenameofthe

.

d

Sovereign,'byHisorHerMajesty'sGovernment-abodyofMinis-

terswhoaretheleadingmembersofwhicheverpoliticalpartythe

electoratehasvotedintooffice,andwhoareresponsibletoParlia-

ment.

Thesystemofparliamentarygovernmentisnotbasedonawritten

constitution.ThereisnowrittenconstitutionintheUnitedKing-

•.

dom,thatis,unliketheconstiutionsofmostothercountries,the

Britishconstitutionisnotsetoutinanysingledocument.,Itismade

upofstatutelaw,monlaw-andconventions(Conventionsare

rulesandpracticeswhicharenotlegallyenforceablebutwhichare

regardedasindispensabletotheworkingofgovernment).TheJudi-

ciarydeterminesmonlawandinterpretsstat'utes.

I

.

TheMonarchy

Themonarchyistheoldestinstitutionofgovernment,goingback

•.

toatleastthe9thcentury.Thecontinuityofthemonarchy,which

hashadonlyafewchangesinthedirectlineofsuccessioninthepast

1,000years,

hasbeenbrokenonlyoncewhen,between1649and

113

..

.v.

16609

arepublicwasestablished.Althoughthemonarchyhassur-

vived,itseemsthatithasnorealpowertoday-

ThepresentSovereign,QueenElizabethII,

wasbornonApril

21,1926-wasmarriedtothePrincePhilip,

theDukeofEdin-

burgh,onNovember20,1947;cametothethroneonFebruary

I

6,1952;andwascrownedonJune2,1953.HertitleintheUnit-

edKingdomis:''ElizabeththeSecond,bytheGraceofGodofthe

UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandofHer

OtherRealmsandTerritories,

Queen,Headofthemon-

wealth,DefenderoftheFaith".

IntheChannelIslandsandthe

IsleofMantheQueenisrepresentedbyaLieutenant-Governor.

AlthoughtheseatofthemonarchyisinBritain,theQueenisalso

headofstateofanumberofmonwealthstatessuchasAustralia,

Canada,andNewZealand.IneachsuchstatetheQueenisrepre-

sented.byaGovernor-General,appointedbyherontheadviceofthe

ministersofthecountryconcernedandpletelyindependentof

theBritishGovernment.InBritishdependentterritoriestheQueen

isusuallyrepresentedbygovernors,whoareresponsibletothe

BritishGovernmentfortheadministration'ofthecountriescon-

cerned.

.

frommonlawrulesofdescent.Succession,isfoundedonthe

ThetitletotheCrownisderivedpartlyfromstatuteandpartly

hereditaryprinciple.SonsoftheSDvereignhaveprecedenceover

daughtersinsucceedingtothethrone.Whenadaughtersucceeds,

shebeesQueenRegnant,andhasthesamepowersasaking.

Theconsortofaking(i.e.theking'swife)takesherhusband's

rankandstyle,beingQueen.UndertheActofSettlementof

1700,whichformedpartoftheRevolutionSettlementfollowingthe

eventsof1688,onlyProtestantdescendantsofagranddaughterof

114

..

.v.

.

.

tress;ofHanover)areeligibletosucceed.Theorderofsuccession

canbealteredonlybymonconsentofthecountriesofthe-

monwealth.

TheSovereignsucceedstothethroneassoonashisorherprede-

-

Theceremonytakesplace

cessordies:thereisnointerregnurn.Heorsheisatoncepro-

claimedatanAccessionCouncil.TheSovereign'scoronationfollows

theaccessionafteraconvenientinterval.

atWestminsterAbbeyinLondon.

TheeldestsonofQueenElizabeth11

-

PrinceCharles,Princeof

Wales

-

istheheirtothethr6ne.ButwhenPrinceCharlesand

I

PrincessDianaweredivorced,manypeoplesuggestedthatheshould

standasidefromthesuccessioninfavourofhiseldestson,

William.

Prince

.

TheQueenisthesymbolofthewholenation.

Inlaw,

sheis

headoftheexecutive,anintegralpartofthelegislature,

headof

thejudiciary,themander-in-chiefofallthearmedforcesofthe

"

Crownandthesupremegovernor"oftheestablishedChurchof

England.AsheadofState,theQueenisinformedandconsultedon

everyaspectofnationallife.Ontheadvice.ofherMinisters,she

performscertainimportantactsofgovernment.Theseincludesum-

.

momng,proroguing(discontiriuinguntilthenextsessionwithout

dissolution)anddissolvingParliament,andgivingRoyalAssentto

BillspassedbyParliament.TheQueenalsoformallyappointsmany

importantofficeholders,includinggovernmentministers,judges,

officersinthearmedforces,governors,diplomats,bishopsand

someotherseniorclergyoftheChurchofEngland.Sheisalsoin-

volvedinpardoningpeopleconvictedofcrimes,andinconferring

peera

knighthood'sandotherhonours.Animportantfunction

115

...

...

-----

-

...

-

...

..

.v.

I

.

isappointingthePrimeMinister.

Ininternationalaffairsthe

Queen,asheadofState,hasthepowertodeclarewarandmake

peace,torecognizeforeignstatesandgovernments,toconclude

treatiesandtoannexor~edeterritory.AsheadofState,the

Queenmustbeinformedandconsultedoneveryaspectofnational

life,andshemustshowpleteimpartiality.

TheQueenisthecentreofmuchofthenation'sceremonialand,

-

byancienttradition,theleaderofsociety.

Royalmarriagesand

royalfuneralsaremarkedbypublicceremony,

andtheSovereign's

birthdayisofficiallycelebratedinJunebyTroopingtheColouron

HorseGuardsParade.Statebanquetstakeplacewhenaforeign

monarchorheadofStatevisitsBritain;ceremoniesareheldat

.

bestowhonours;androyalprocessionsaddsignificancetosuchocca-

BuckinghamPalaceandthePalaceofHolyroodhouseinScotlandto

sionsasthestateopeningofParliament.

I

EachyeartheQueenandothermembersoftheroyalfamilyvisit

manypartsoftheUnitedKingdomtoinauguratescientific,indus-

trial,artisticandcharitableworksofnationalimportance.The

Queenpaysstatevisitstoforeigngovernments,acpaniedbythe

DukeofEdinburgh.Shealsoundertakestoursofothercountriesin

•.

themonwealth(ofwhichtheQueenisthehead).

TheexpenditureansingfromthepublicdutiesoftheQueenismet

.

bytheCivilList(anannualgrant)andbygovermentdepartments

(whichmeetthecostof,forexample,theRoyalYachtBritannia

andtheaircraftoftheQueen'sFlight).Allsuchexpenditureisap-

provedbyParliament.In1991CivilListpaymentswerefixedat

Z7.8millionayearfortenyears.Abouttbree-quartersofthe

Queen'sCivilListprovisionisrequiredtocovertheexpenditureon

thesalariesandexpensesoftheRoyalHousehold.TheQueen'spri-

116

..

.v.

.

vateexpenditureasSovereignismetfromthePrivyPurse,whichis

financedmainlyfromtherevenueoftheDuchyofLancaster(which

prisessome52,000acres,mostlyoffarmlandandmoorland;

andisaninheritancewhichhasalwaysbeenenjoyedbythereigning

Sovereignsince1399)

.

9

herexpenditureasaprivateindividualis

metfromherownpersonalresources.

SinceApril,1993,theQueenhaspaidinetaxonallherper-

sonalineandonthatpartofthePrivyPurseinewhichis

usedforprivatepurposes.TheQueenalsopaystaxonanyrealized

capitalgainsonherprivateinvestmentsandontheprivatepropor-

tionofassetsinthePrivyPurse.

R-Parliament

.

TheUnitedKingdomisaunitary,notafederal,

State.Allfour

countriesofthekingdomarerepresentedintheParliamentatWest-

minster(London).

Theterm

•6

parliament

P9

originallymeanta

meetingforparley

ordiscussion.Parliamentconsistsofthe

Sovereign,theHouseofLordsandtheHouseofmons.The

threeelementsmeettogetheronlyonoccasionsofsymbolicsignifi-

cancesuchasthestateopeningofParliament,whenthemons

aresummonedbytheQueentotheHouseofLords.

ThemainfunctionsofParliamentare:(1)topasslaws;(2)to

provide,byvotingfortaxation,themeansofcarryingonthework

ofgovernment;(3)toexaminegovernmentpolicyandadministra-

tion,includingproposalsforexpenditure;and(4)todebatethe

majorissuesoftheday.

.

AParliamenthasamaximumdurationoffiveyears,

butinprac-

ticegeneralelectionsareusuallyheldbeforetheendofthisterm.

117

..

.v.

N

ThelifeofaParliamentisdividedintosessions.Eachu~uallylasts

foroneyear-normallybeginningandendinginOctoberorNovern-

1.9

ber.Thereareadjournments''atnight,atweekends,atChrist-

mas,EasterandthelateSpringBankHoliday,

andduringalong

sununerbreakusuallystartinginlateJuly.

TheSovereignformallysummonsanddissolvesParliamentand

generallyopenseachnewannualsessionwithaspeechfromthe

throne.

I

TheHousesofParliamentwererebuiltbetween1835and1857af-

I

terhavingbeendestroyedbyfireandweredesignedbySirCharles

BarryonaclassicalplanwithGothicdetailingbyAugustusWelby

Pugin.ThepublicareadmittedtotheStranger'sGalleriesinthe

HouseofLords(2-30pmMon,TuesandWed,3pm,Thur,11

amFri)andtheHouseofmons(4:30pmMon-Thur,9:30

amFri)-

1.TheHomofLords

TheHouseofLordsismadeupoftheLordsSpiritualandthe

LordsTemporal.TheLordsSpiritualaretheArchbishopsofCan-

.

terburyandYorkand24seniorbishopsoftheChurchofEngland.

TheLordsTemporalconsistof(1)allhereditarypeersandpeeress-

esofEngland,Scotland,

GreatBritainandtheUnitedKingdom

(butnotpeersofIreland)

9

(2)lifepeerscreatedtoassistthe

dA

Houseinitsjudicialduties(LordsofAppealorlawlord'');and

.

tobringthewideexperienceofitsmembersintotheprocessof-law-

(3allotherlifepeers.ThemainfunctionoftheHouseofLordsis

making.Inotherwords,thenon-electedHouseistoactasacham-

•I

berofrevision,plementingbutnotrivallingtheelectedHouse.

ThepotentialmembershipoftheHouseofLordsisabout1,200.

Inmid-1994therewere1,198membersoftheHouseofLords.

118

..

.v.

...

A=rsWhoattendtheHouse(theaveragedailyattendanceissome

380)receivenosalaryfortheirparliamentarywork,butcanclaim

•.

expenses.TheministersoftheHouseofLordsaresalariedmem-

forexpensesincuredinattendingtheHouseandcertaintravelling

•.

bers.SalariesrangefromL38,894forjuniorministersto

i52,260forCabinetministers.TheHouseispresidedoverbythe

-

LordChancellor,whotakeshisplaceonthewoolsack(aseatinthe

formofalargecushion,stuffedwithwoolfromseveralmon-

wealthcountries)asex-officioSpeakeroftheHouse.TheClerkof

theParliamentsisresponsiblefortherecordsofproceedingsofthe

HouseofLordsandforthetextofActsofParliament.Heistheac-

countingofficerforthecostoftheHouse,andisinchargeofthe

administrativestaffoftheHouse,knownastheParliamentOffice.

TheGentlemanUsheroftheBlackRod,usuallyknownas''Black

Rod"

.

9isresponsibleforsecurity,acmodation'andservicesin

theHouseofLords'partofthePalaceofWestminster.

2-TheHouseofCo

ons

TheHouseofmonsiselectedbyuniversaladultsuffrageand

consistsof651MembersofParliament(MPs).Inmid-1994there

were60women,threeAsianandthreeblackMPs.0*the651

seats,524areforEngland,38for-Wales,72forScotland,and17

forNorthernIreland.Eachmemberrepresentsanarea(orcon-

stituency)

,andholdshisseatduringthelifeofaParliament.Itis

intheHouseofmonsthattheultimateauthorityforlaw-making

resides.

(1)ParliamentaryElectoralSystem

MembersoftheHouseofmonsareelectedeitherataGeneral,

Election,whenalltheseatsarecontested,orataby-electionheld

whenanMPdiesorresigns,orisgivenapeerage.AGeneralElec-

119

-

...

-

-I

___

...

-

..

.v.

tionmustbeheldeveryfiveyearsandisoftenheldatmorefrequent

intervals.

each

ForelectoralpurposesBritainisdividedintoconstituencies,

ofwhichreturnsonemembertotheHouseofmons.Elections

arebysecretballot.Britishcitizens,togetherwithcitizensofother

monwealthcountriesandcitizensoftheIrishRepublicresident

inBritain,mayvoteprovidedtheyare(A)aged18orover,

.

(B)

includedintheannualregisterofelectorsfortheconstituency,

and

C.

(C)notsubjecttoanydisqualification.

I

Eachelectormaycastonevote,,normallyinpersonatapolling

r

.

.

station.Peopleentitledtoanabsentvotemayvotebypostorby

proxy,althoughpostalballotpaperscannotbe-senttoaddressesout-

sideBritain-

Britishcitizensandcitizensofothermonwealthcountries,

togetherwithcitizensoftheIrishRepublic,maystandforelection

asMPsprovidedtheyareaged21oroverandarenotdisqualified.

Acandidatemustdeposit1500,whichisreturnedifheorshere-

ceives5percentormoreofthevotecast.

(2)ThePoliticalPartySystem

Forthelast150yearsapredominantlytwo-partysystemhasex-

i

isted.Since1945eithertheConservativePartyortheLabourParty

hasheldpower.Anewparty-theSocialandLiberalDemocratic

Party-wasformedin1988whentheLiberalPartymergedwiththe

SocialDemocraticPartyformedin1981.Otherpartiesincludetwo

nationalistparties,

I

-

PlaidCymru(foundedinWalesin1925)and

theScottishNationalParty(foundedin-1934).TheGreenParty

hashadlimitedsuccess.ThemunistPartywasfoundedby

someMarxistgroupsonJuly21,

1920.Itoncehadtwoseatsin

theHouseofmonsin1945.

InNorthernIrelandtherearea

120

-

-

...

..

.v.

numberofparties.

TheyincludetheUlsterUnionistParty,formed

intheearlypartofthiscentury;theDemocraticUnionistParty,

foundedin1971byagroupwhichbrokeawayfromtheUlsterU-

9

nionists-andtheSocialDemocraticandLabourParty,

foundedin

1970.

Since1945eightgeneralelectionshavebeenwonbytheConser-

I

•.

vativePartyandsixbytheLabourParty;thegreatmajorityof

-

membersoftheHouseofmonshavebelongedtooneofthese

twoparties.TheresultsofthegeneralelectionofApril1992areas

follows:

ResultsoftheApril1992GeneralElection

Party

Memberselected

Numberof

%of

votescast

votescast

Conservative

336

14,094,116

41.9

Labour

271

11,557,134

34.4

LiberalDemocrats

20

5,998,446

17.8

PlaidCyrnru(Welsh

4

Nationalist)

-

ScottishNational

3

1

UlsterUnionist(Northern

9

1,960,703

5.9*

Ireland)

UlsterDemocraticUnionist

3

(NorthernIreland)

UlsterPopularUnionist

I.

(NorthernIreland)

SocialDemocraticandLabour

4

.

(NorthernIreland)

Total

651

33,610,399

100.0

Thesefiguresincludevotesforotherpartieswhosecandidateswereunsuccessful.

Source:Britain1995(AnOfficialHandbook)

121

..

.v.

-

ThepartywhichwinssufficientseatsataGeneralElectionto

mandamajorityofsupportersintheHouseofmonsusually

.

formstheGovernment.Bytradition,theleaderofthemajority

.

partyisappointedPrimeMinisterbytheSovereign.Theleading

.

membersofthepartyarechosenbythePrimeMinistertofillmints-

terialposts.Thepartywhichwinsthesecondlargestnumberof

seatsbeestheofficialOpposition,

withitsownleaderand

ed

shadowcabinet

'PIP

LeadersoftheGovernmentandOppositionsitonthefrontbench-

•.

esofthemonswiththeirsupporters(thebackbenchers)sitting

behindthem.

Generallyspeaking,

theaimsoftheOppositionaretocontribute

totheformulationofpolicyandlegislationbyconstructivecriticism,

toopposegovernmentproposalsitconsidersobjectionable,toseek

amendmentstogovernmentBills,andtoputforwarditsownpoli-

ciesinordertoimproveitschancesofwinningthenextgeneralelec-

tion.

(3)OtherAspectsoftheHouseofmons

Parliament'smainfunctionsarelaw-making,authorizingtaxation

.

andpublicexpenditure,andexaminingtheactionsoftheGovern-

ment.Mostofthisworkiscarriedonthroughasystemofdebates

whichismuchthesameinbothHouses,exceptthatin4ieHouseof

mons,allspeechesareaddressedtotheSpeakerwhoiselected

atthebeginningofeachnewParliamenttopresideovertheHouse

andenforcetherulesoforder.TheSpeakerisamember(proposed

bytheGovernmentafterconsultationwiththeOpposition)whois

acceptabletoallshadesofopinionintheHouse-TheHouseof-

monshaditsfirstwomanSpeakerin1992.Incarryingouthisor

herdutiestheSpeakerisrequiredtobeimpartial;heorshecannot

122

..

.v.

-

debateor,

asageneralrule,

voteonameasure,

anditishisorher

dutytoseethatallpointsofviewhaveafairhearing.

MostBills0-e.draftActsofParliament)aremeasuresrelating

topublicpolicy.ThegreatmajorityoftheseareGovernmentmea-

suresintroducedbyaMinister;afew(knownasPrivateMember'

.

•.

Bills)aresponsoredbyindividualmembersontheirowninitiative,

butnotmanyofthesebeelaw.Ineachsession,someprivate

Billsrelatingsolelytomattersofindividual,corporateorlocalinter-

estarepromotedbypersonsorbodiesoutsideParliament-Billsmay

beintroducedineitherHouse,unlesstheydealwithfinanceorrep-

resentation,whentheyarealwaysintroducedinthemons.

Thosethatpassthroughallthenecessarystages(FirstandSecond

Readings,mitteeandReportstages,andThirdReading)in

bothHousesreceivethetraditionalRoyalAssentandbeelawas

ActsofParliament.RoyalAssenttakestheformofanannounce-

mentratherthananysignatureormarkonacopyoftheBill.The

HouseofLordsmaynotalterafinancialmeasure,normayitdelay

forlonger,thanoneyearanyBillpassedbythemonsintwosuc-

.

cessivesessions.

Inadditiontothesystemofscrutinybyselectmittees,

•.

a

-

numberofopportunitiesareofferedintheHouseofmonsforthe

examinationofgovernment,policybyboththeOppositionandthe

Government'sownbackbenchers.Theyinclude:

(A)Question

time,whenfor55minutesonMonday,Tuesday,Wednesdayand

(B)Adjournment

Thursday,ministersanswerMPs'questions.

debates,whenMPsusemotionsfortheadjournmentoftheHouse

toraiseconstituencycasesormattersofpublicconcern.Thereisa

half-houradjournmentperiodattheendofthebusinessoftheday.

IfanMPwishestoraiseamatterofurgentpublicimportance,

he

123

..

.v.

mayaskleave,attheendofQuestionTime,

tomovetheadjourn-

mentoftheHouse.IftheHousegrantsleave,thematterwillbe

debatedforthreehoursinwhatisknownasanemergencydebate,

(C)Earlydaymotions(EDMs)

usuallyonthefollowingday.

provideafurtheropportunityforbackbenchMPstoexpresstheir

viewsonparticularissues.(D)The20Oppositiondayseachses-

sion,whentheOppositioncanchoosesubjectsfordebate,and(E)

debatesonthreedaysineachsessionondetailsofproposedgovem-

mentexpenditure,chosenbytheLiaisonmittee.

U1-TheCabinetandMinistry

HerMajesty'sGovernmentisthebodyofministersresponsiblefor

theconductofnationalaffairs.ThePrimeMinisterisappointedby

theQueen.Heisalso,bytradition,

andMinisterfortheCivilService.

FirstLordoftheTreasury

Bymodemconvention,the

PrimeMinisteralwayssitsintheHouseofmons.ThePrime

Ministerreceivesi78,292ayear,

No.10DowningStreetinLondon.

andhisofficialresidenceis

ThePrimeMinisterpresides

overtheCabinet,isresponsiblefortheallocationoffunctionsa-

mongministersandinformstheQueenatregularmeetingsofthe

generalbusinessoftheGovernment.

-

MinistersareappointedbytheQueenontheremendationof

thePrimeMinister.Themostseniorministers(usuallyabout20)

posetheCabinet,whichmeetsunderthechairmanshipofthe

PrimeMinisterforafewhourseachweektodecideGovernmentpol-

icyonmajorissues.MinistersareresponsiblecollectivelytoParlia-

mentforallCabinetdecisions;individualMinistersareresponsible

toParliamentfortheworkoftheirdepartments.

124

..

.v.

IV.ThePrivyCouncil

ThePrivyCouncilwasformerlythechiefsourceofexecutivepow-

erintheState;itsoriginscanbetracedbacktotheKing'sCouncil

(orCourt),whichinthe13thcenturygavethesovereignprivate

64

t"

(privy)adviceonthegovernmentofthecountry.Itremained

powerfuluntilthe18thcenturywhenmostofitsworkwastaken

overbytheCabinet.

Todayitsroleislargelyformal,advisingthesovereigntoapprove

certaingovemmentdecrees(so-calledorders-in-council)andissuing

royalproclamations.TheworkoftheCouncilismainlycarriedout

bymitteessincethemembership

-

nowconferredasaspecial

honour

-

islarge.

Itsmembershipisabout400,

andincludesallCabinetministers,

theSpeakeroftheHouseofmons,theArchbishopsofCanter-

buryandYork,andseniorBritishandmonwealthstatesmen.

ThePrivyCouncilispresidedoverbytheLordPresidentofthe

Council.AfullmeetingoftheCounciliscalledonlywhena

sovereigndiesorannounceshisorherintentiontomarry-

V.Government

Departments

and

the

Civil

Service

Governmentdepartmentsandtheiragenciesarethemaininstru-

mentsforimplementinggovernmentpolicywhenParliamenthas

passedthenecessarylegislation,andforadvisingministers.

TheprincipalGovernmentdepartmentsinclude:

theTreasury;

125

..

.v.

theHomeOffice;theForeignandmonwealthOffice;the0-

verseasDevelopmentAdministration;theDepartmentforEduca-

tion;theDepartmentoftheEnvironment;theDepartmentof

Health;theDepartmentofNationalHeritage;theSocialSecurity

Department;theDepartmentofEmployment;theMinistryofA-

griculure-FisheriesandFood;theDepartmentofTradeandIndus-

&

"

try;theDepartmentofTransport;theOfficeofTelemunica-

tions-theLordChancellor'sDepartment;.theMinistryofDefence;

9

andnineScottishDepartmentsresponsibletotheSecretaryofState

forScotland.SincetheBritishGovernment'sassumptionofdirect

responsibilityforNorthernIrelandin1972,theSecretaryofState

forNorthernIrelandhasbeentheCabinetMinisterresponsiblefor

NorthernIrelandaffairs.TheworkofthenineNorthernIreland

departmentsissubjecttothedirectionandcontroloftheSecretaryof

StateforNorthernIreland.

ThegovernmentdepartmentsarestaffedbymembersoftheCivil

Service,whosedutyistoassistincarryingouttheadministrationof

lawspassedbyParliament.ChangesofGovernmentdonotinvolve

changesindepartmentalstaff,whocontinuetocarryouttheduties

whicheverpartyisinpower.Civilservantsarerecruitedmainlyby

•.

petitiveexamination.

Therewere541,800civilservantsinJanuary,

1994.Abouthalf

ofallcivilservantsareengagedintheprovisionofpublicservices.

Theseincludepayingsicknessbenefitsandpensions,

collectingtax-

esandcontributions,runningemploymentservices,

.

staffingpris-

ons,andprovidingservicestoindustryandagriculture.Aquarter

areemployedintheMinistryofDefence.Therestaredividedbe-

tweencentraladministrativeandpolicyduties;servicewidesupport

services,

suchasacmodation,

printingandinformation,

•and

126

...

...

...

.-...

-

-

..

.v.

largelyfinanciallyself-supportingservices,forinstance,

thosepro-

videdbytheDepartmentforNationalSavingsandtheRoyalMint.

Thetotalnumberincludesabout48,000''industrial

5-2

civilser-

vants,mainlymanualworkersingovernmentindustrialestablish-

ments.Four-fifthsofcivilservantsworkoutsideLondon.

.

Responsibilityforcentralcoordinationandmanagementofthe

CivilServiceisdividedbetweentheTreasuryandtheCabinetOffice

(OfficeofPublicServiceandScience)

Attheseniorlevels,wheremanagementformsamajorpartof

mostjobs,therearemongradesthroughouttheCivilService.

TheseunifiedgradesIto7areknownastheOpenStructureand

covergradesfromPermanentSecretarylevelto~Principallevel.

Withintheunifiedgradeseachpostisfilledbythepersonbestquali-

fied,regardlessoftheoccupationalgrouptowhichheorsheprevi-

ously'belonged.

BelowthisOpenStructurethestructureofthenon-industrialser-

viceisbasedonasystemofoccupationalgroups.Thesegroupsassis