南非国际事务研究所-核电和治理框架：埃及、加纳和南非（英文）-2021.5-50正式版

Special

Report

March2021

NuclearPowerandGovernance

Frameworks:Egypt,Ghanaand

SouthAfrica

EDITEDBYYARIKTURIANSKYI&JO-ANSIEVANWYK

Africanperspectives

Globalinsights

Executivesummary

ThisreportexaminesthreeAfricancountriesthatareatdifferentstagesinusingnuclearenergytoachievedevelopmentaloutcomes.Theyear2020markedthe50thanniversaryoftheTreatyontheNon-ProliferationofNuclearWeapons’enteringintoforce.Thistreatyassertedtherightofallstatestothepeacefuluseofnucleartechnology.ThisisimportantforAfricanstates,whicharetryingtomakeprogressintermsoftheUN’s2030SustainableDevelopmentGoalsandpriorityareasoftheAU’sAgenda2063.Manyofthesestatesalsohavetheresourcesneededfornuclearenergy,suchasuranium,plutonium,thoriumandzirconium.

Egypt,GhanaandSouthAfricahavebeenselectedascasestudiesforthisreport,astheyrepresentthreeAfricancountriesatdifferentpointsintheirjourneytowardsthepeacefuluseofnuclearenergy.

Egypthasbeenexpectedtodevelopanuclearweaponsprogrammebecauseofitshistoricalroleasaleaderinthepan-Arabmovement,andthefactthatitisthemostpopulouscountryintheArabworld.However,thecountryinsteadoptedfornon-proliferationandthepeacefuluseofnuclearenergy.Nowitisfinallyrealisingalong-helddreambybuildinganuclearpowerplantincooperationwithROSATOM,theRussianstateatomicenergycorporation.Theprofessedobjectiveoftheprojectistoachieveself-sufficiencyintermsofenergyamidincreasingdemandandagrowingpopulation.However,theprojecthasalsobeenframedwithovertonesofnationalprestige,andcriticshavenotedthatnon-nuclearoptionsshouldhavebeengivengreaterconsideration.

Ghanaaspirestodothesame,althoughitsnuclearambitionsarestillatanascentstage.Electricitysupplyinthecountryhasbeenoutstrippedbydemand,leadingtonumerousenergycrises.ThegovernmentofGhanahasreneweditscommitmenttoimplementanuclearpowerprogrammeandtousenuclearpowertodriveeconomicdevelopment.Thecountryisapproachingthisinaresponsiblemanner,byfollowingtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency’sMilestonesApproach.Thisisacomprehensiveguidefortheestablishmentofnuclearpowerprogrammesthatsetsoutthreephasesimperativeto‘developingtheinfrastructurenecessarytosupportanuclearprogramme’.WhilesignificantstepshavebeentakeninestablishinganuclearprogrammeinGhana,muchworkliesahead.

SouthAfricahasthemostadvancednuclearprogrammeinAfrica,andthecontinent’sonlynuclearpowerplant.Post-apartheidSouthAfricawasregardedastheposterchildfornucleardisarmament,nuclearnon-proliferationandthepeacefuluseofnuclearenergyaftervoluntarilydismantlingitsnuclearweaponsprogramme.Itjoinedanumberofmultilateralnuclearregimesandorganisationsandsignedvariousinternationalagreements.OneofthemostsignificantnuclearlegaciesofapartheidSouthAfricaisthenuclearfacilitiescreatedduringthatera.However,Africa’sfirstandonlynuclearpowerplant,Koeberg,andtheSAFARI-1researchreactorhaverecentlyreachedtheirend-of-lifecycle.Urgentinvestmentisneededtosecuretheextensionoftheirlifespan,asisadditionalinvestmenttomeetthebroaderenergydemandsofthecountry.

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Abbreviations&acronyms

AEB AtomicEnergyBoard

AEC AtomicEnergyCorporation

AG AustraliaGroup

ANC AfricanNationalCongress

DMRE DepartmentofMineralResourcesandEnergy

EAEA EgyptAtomicEnergyAgency

EE energyefficiency

ELA EarthlifeAfrica

ENRRA EgyptianNuclearandRadiologicalRegulatoryAuthority

GAEC GhanaAtomicEnergyCommission

GNPP GhanaNuclearPowerProgramme

GNPPO GhanaNuclearPowerProgrammeOrganisation

IAEA InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency

INIR IntegratedNuclearInfrastructureReview

IRP IntegratedResourcePlan

MoEE MinistryofElectricityandRenewableEnergy

MTCR MissileTechnologyControlRegime

NAM Non-AlignedMovement

NECSA SouthAfricanNuclearEnergyCorporation

NEPIO NuclearEnergyProgrammeImplementationOrganisation

NPPA NuclearPowerPlantsAuthority

NPT TreatyontheNon-ProliferationofNuclearWeapons

NRA NuclearRegulatoryAuthority

NRWDI NationalRadioactiveWasteDisposalInstitute

NSG NuclearSuppliersGroup

SAFCEI SouthernAfricanFaithCommunities’EnvironmentInstitute

SONA StateoftheNationAddress

CSO civilsocietyorganisation

PAIA PromotionofAccesstoInformationAct

PBMR PebbleBedModularReactor

RFI requestforinformation

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RPI RadiationProtectionInstitute

iThembaLABS iThembaLaboratoryforAcceleratorBasedSciences

WA WassenaarArrangementonExportControlsforConventionalArmsand

Dual-UseGoodsandTechnologies

ZC ZanggerCommittee

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Authors

YarikTurianskyi

istheDeputyProgrammeHeadforAfricanGovernanceandDiplomacyattheSouthAfricanInstituteofInternationalAffairs.Heistheauthorofover12researchpapersfocusedongovernance,technologyandgender,andover30opinionpiecesonvariousgovernancethemes.Hehasconductedresearchin10Africancountriesandistheco-editorofAfricanAccountability:WhatWorksandWhatDoesn’t.

Jo-AnsievanWyk

isaProfessorofInternationalPoliticsintheDepartmentofPoliticalSciences,UniversityofSouthAfrica.ShealsoleadsSAIIA’sAtomsforAfrica’sDevelopmentproject.AFulbrightAlumnaandthewinnerofUNISA’s2014LeadershipinResearchWomenAward,herresearchinterestsincludeSouthAfricanforeignpolicy,diplomacyandinternationalrelations,andnucleardiplomacy.

HebaTaha

HebaTahaisanaffiliatewithNuclearKnowledgesatSciencesPoParisandalectureratLeidenUniversityintheNetherlands.Herresearchliesattheintersectionofeconomyandmilitarism,andsheisinterestedinexploringthehistoryandpoliticsofnucleartechnologyintheMiddleEast.

HubertFoy

istheFoundingDirectoroftheAfricanCentreforScienceandInternationalSecuritybasedinAccra,Ghana.Hisareasofinterestinclude:nuclearsecurity;nonproliferationandarmscontrol;disarmamentverification;andglobalmissilesystemsproliferation

IsabelBosman

isaKonradAdenauerStiftungresearchscholaratSAIIAworkingwiththeAfricanGovernanceandDiplomacyProgramme.

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Acknowledgment

SAIIAisgratefultotheNorwegianMinistryofForeignAffairsforsupportingthe‘AtomsforAfrica’sDevelopment’project.

AboutSAIIA

SAIIAisanindependent,non-governmentthinktankwhosekeystrategicobjectivesaretomakeeffectiveinputintopublicpolicy,andtoencouragewiderandmoreinformeddebateoninternationalaffairs,withparticularemphasisonAfricanissuesandconcerns.

SAIIA’Sspecialreportsarefairlylengthyanalyticalpapers,usuallyreflectingonandanalysingthefindingsoffieldresearch.

Coverimage

Insidedetailofanuclearreactor(GettyImages)

Allrightsreserved.CopyrightisvestedintheSouthAfricanInstituteofInternationalAffairsandtheauthors,andnopartmaybereproducedinwholeorinpartwithouttheexpresspermission,inwriting,ofthepublisher.

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Contents

Executivesummary

2

Abbreviations&acronyms

3

Authors

5

CHAPTER1

9

Introduction

9

CHAPTER2

11

Originsofnuclearprogrammes

11

Egypt

11

Ghana

14

SouthAfrica

17

CHAPTER3

22

Existinginstallations

22

Egypt

22

Ghana

22

SouthAfrica

22

CHAPTER4

25

Governanceframeworks

25

Egypt

25

Ghana

27

SouthAfrica

30

CHAPTER5

33

Internationalcommitments

33

Egypt

33

Ghana

35

SouthAfrica

36

CHAPTER6

38

Civilsocietyandpublicinput

38

Egypt

38

Ghana

38

SouthAfrica

39

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CHAPTER7

41

Thewayforward

41

Egypt

41

Ghana

43

SouthAfrica

44

CHAPTER8

46

Conclusion

46

CHAPTER9

47

Policyrecommendations

47

Egypt

47

Ghana

47

SouthAfrica

48

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CHAPTER1

Introduction

Theyear2020markedthe50thanniversaryoftheTreatyontheNon-ProliferationofNuclearWeapons’(NPT)enteringintoforce.Althoughthetreatyisanimportantpillarofglobalsecurityintermsoftheweaponisationofnuclearenergy,italsoassertstherightofallstatestothepeacefuluseofnucleartechnology.ThisisparticularlyimportantfortheAfricancontinent.Africancountriesarelookingatwaystoachievethe2030SustainableDevelopmentGoalsandmakeheadwayonpriorityareasofAgenda2063.Oneofthewaystoachievedevelopmentalprogressisthroughnuclearenergy.Apartfrompossessingthenaturalresources(uranium,plutonium,thoriumandzirconium)necessaryfornuclearenergy,anumberofAfricanstatesareeitherbuildingorexpandingtheirfacilitiesforcivilianuse.Othersareworkingjointlywithinternationalinstitutionsandothercountries(inboththeNorthandtheSouth)toleveragethedevelopmentalbenefitsthatcanbederivedfromthistechnology.

Egypt,GhanaandSouthAfricahavebeenselectedascasestudiesforthisreportbecausetheyrepresentcountriesatdifferentpointsintheirjourneytowardsthepeacefuluseofnuclearenergy

Egypt,GhanaandSouthAfricahavebeenselectedascasestudiesforthisreportbecausetheyrepresentcountriesatdifferentpointsintheirjourneytowardsthepeacefuluseofnuclearenergy.Egyptisfinallyrealisingitslong-helddreamofbuildinganuclearpowerplant.Ghanaaspirestodothesame,althoughitsnuclearambitionsarestillatanascentstage.SouthAfricahasthemostadvancednuclearprogrammeonthecontinent,andAfrica’sonlynuclearpowerplant.Yetittoofaceschallenges,owingtoageingequipmentandmaladministration.

First,thisreportgivesthebackgroundofeachnuclearproject.Thisnotonlyprovidesahistoricaloverviewofacountry’snuclearambitionsandtheprogressachievedbutalsoshowshowpoliticalconsiderationsandchangingpoliticaladministrations(whetherthroughdemocraticmeansorcoups)canhavesignificantramificationsfornationalnucleargoals.

Second,itlistsexistingnuclearinstallations,facilitiesandresearchcentresineachofthecountrycasestudies,alongwithabriefdescriptionoftheirworkonnuclearenergy.Third,itdiscussesrelevantdomesticgovernanceframeworksandstructuresthatarecrucialforthesafeandsecureuseofnuclearenergy.Thepastdecadesawseverallow-profilenuclear

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incidentsonthecontinent,someofwhichwereonlyrevealedafterthefact.Thisdoesnothelptoinspirepublictrustinnuclearpower.

Fourth,thereportgivesanoverviewofinternationalcommitmentsmadebyeachcountryovertheyears.Africa(withtheexceptionofSouthSudan)hascommittedtoandratifiedallthemajordisarmamenttreaties,includingtheNPT.Thecontinenthasalsoahome-growninitiative,theAfricanNuclear-Weapon-FreeZoneTreaty(PelindabaTreaty),whichenteredintoforceon15July2009.Compliancewithinternationalandcontinentalstandardsiscrucialforstatesinterestedinpursuinganuclearpath.

Fifth,itdiscussestheroleofcivilsocietyandpublicinputintonuclearmatters.Itisnecessarytoencouragetheactiveengagementofcivilsocietyorganisations(CSOs),womenandyouthgroupsindiscussionsongovernanceandregulatoryinstitutionsinAfrica,aswellasonnuclearnon-proliferationandthepeacefuluseofnucleartechnology.Thisiscrucial,asmanyofthesediscussionsarehappeningbehindcloseddoorsandamongofficials,withverylittleinformationortransparencyonthebroaderimplicationsforsociety.Informedengagementbycivilsociety(includingthemedia)helpstogalvanisegovernmentsandintergovernmentalorganisations.

Lastly,thereportchartsthewayforwardforeachcountryinpursuingorexpandingitsnuclearcapabilities.Basedonthissection,thisreportmakespracticalpolicyrecommendations.

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CHAPTER2

Originsofnuclearprogrammes

Egypt

BecauseofEgypt’shistoricalroleasaleaderinthepan-ArabmovementandthefactthatitisthemostpopulouscountryintheArabworld,ithasbeenexpected–andhasoftenfacedpressure–todevelopanuclearweaponsprogramme.1Indeed,sincethe1950spoliticalanalystshaveconsistentlyarguedinfavourofEgypt’sneedforabomb.However,thecountryoptedinsteadfornon-proliferation,andscholarshavefrequentlyuseditspathasacasestudyonnuclearrestraint.2

Thelogicbehindanuclearprogrammeintheyearsimmediatelyafteritsindependencewasbasedonacombinationoftechnologicalmodernism,itsleadershiproleintheArabworldandtheNon-AlignedMovement(NAM),andadesireforabalanceofpowerwithIsrael(apointthatiselaboratedoningreaterdetaillater).Theideaofanuclearprogramme

–evenapeacefulone–hasthereforebeenassociatedwithnationalpride,andeachofthecountry’spresidentshasdiscussednuclearaspirations.Planstoestablishaciviliannuclearpowerprogrammehavealmostconsistentlybeenunderconsiderationbutneverimplemented,untilnow.

Theideaofanuclearprogramme–evenapeacefulone–hasbeenassociatedwithnationalpride,andeachofthecountry’spresidentshasdiscussednuclearaspirations

Thecountrylaunchedaciviliannuclearprogrammein1954andhassincetrainedcadresofnuclearscientists.In1958PresidentJamalAbdal-NasserprocuredapilotplantfromtheSovietUnion.TheETTR-1,locatedatInshas,isa2MWlight-waterresearchreactor,waslaunchedin1961withSoviettechnicalassistance.Itbecameoperationalthreeyearslaterandcontinuestooperatetothisday.TheprimaryfocusoftheInshasfacilityisindustrialand

AdelSafety,“Proliferation,BalanceofPower,andNuclearDeterrence:ShouldEgyptPursueaNuclearOption?”,International

Studies33,no.1(1996):21–33.

GawdatBahgat,“TheProliferationofWeaponsofMassDestruction:Egypt”,ArabStudiesQuarterly29,no.2(2007):1–15;MariaRost

Rublee,Non-ProliferationNorms:WhyStatesChooseNuclearRestraint(Athens:UniversityofGeorgiaPress,2009),99–148;Robert

JEinhorn,“Egypt:FrustratedbutStillonaNon-NuclearCourse”,inTheNuclearTippingPoint:WhyStatesReconsiderTheirNuclear

Choices,eds.KurtMCampbell,RobertJEinhornandMitchellNReiss(WashingtonDC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2004),43–82;Etel

Solingen,NuclearLogics:ConstrainingPathsinEastAsiaandtheMiddleEast(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007),229–245.

11 SpecialReport|NUCLEARPOWERANDGOVERNANCEFRAMEWORKS:EGYPT,GHANAANDSOUTHAFRICA

agriculturalresearch.In1964EgyptproposedSidiKrir(westofAlexandria,135kmeastofAlDabaa)asasiteforanuclearreactor,buttheprojectwashaltedowingtotheSix-DayWarwithIsraelinJune1967,whichalmostcompletelydestroyedEgypt’sairforce.

TheNasseradministration’sattemptstoacquirenuclearweaponsthroughoutthe1960sprovedtobefutile.TheEgyptianpresidentreportedlyapproachedtheSovietUnionandChinainhisquestfornuclearweapons,butbothcountrieswerereluctanttohelp.Eventually,Egyptoptedtoestablishitselfasworkinginfavourofnon-proliferation,anditcurrentlyviewsthedevelopmentofnuclearweaponsascontrarytoitsstrategicinterests.

AfterNasser’sdeath,theadministrationofpresidentAnwaral-Sadatre-startedthenuclearpowerplantproject.USpresidentRichardNixonandSadatreleasedajointstatement

inJune1974announcingUSplanstohelpEgyptconstructtworeactors.However,theNixonadministrationlaterbacktracked.3MembersoftheUSCongressarguedthatNixon’sagreementwithSadatwaspremature.Inparticular,theyhighlightedthevolatilepoliticalsituationintheMiddleEastatthetime,withanotherArab–Israeliwarin1973andnopoliticalsettlement.4FearingthatthesafeguardsoverseenbytheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)mightbeinsufficienttodeterEgyptfromattemptingtobuildabomb,theyimposedthreeadditionalconditions.ThesewereEgypt’ssigningoftheNPT,guaranteesthatthenuclearreactorswouldbesafefromsabotagebyarmedgroups,andthatplutoniumproducedinthepowerplantwouldnotbere-processedorstoredonEgyptianterritorywithoutexpressUSapproval.Inthefaceoftheseconditions,theprojectultimatelyfaltered.

In1981,AlDabaawassuggestedasthesiteofanelectricity-generatingpowerplantinapresidentialdecreebyHosniMubarak,whobecamepresidentafterSadat’sassassination.ThesitewasdeemedthemostfeasiblefortheprojectbasedonstudiescontractedbytheEgyptiangovernment,owingtoitsproximitytowater,itsdistancefromtheseismicbelt,groundwatermovement,anddemographics(itisrelativelysparselypopulated).5However,thepursuitofthereactorswashaltedin1986afterconcernsovertheChornobylnucleardisaster.6

DuringmostofMubarak’snearly30-yearrule,theprojectwasshelved.PlansforanuclearpowerplantatAlDabaawereonlyrevivedinSeptember2006asaresultofincreasingenergyneeds,coupledwithrisingoilandgasprices.7Theprojectwasproposedby

JSamuelWalker,“NuclearPowerandNonproliferation:TheControversyoverNuclearExports,1974–1980”,DiplomaticHistory25,

no.2(2001):215–249.

USCongress,“USForeignPolicyandtheExportofNuclearTechnologytotheMiddleEast,HearingbeforetheSubcommitteesonInternationalOrganizationsandMovementsandontheNearEastandSouthAsiaoftheCommitteeonForeignAffairs,HouseofRepresentatives,NinetyThirdCongress,SecondSession,June25;July9,18;andSeptember16,1974”(USGovernmentPrintingOffice,WashingtonDC,1974),168–170.

MohamedMMegahed,“FeasibilityofNuclearPowerandDesalination”,Desalination246,no.1–3(2009):238–256.

“EgyptUnveilsNuclearPowerPlan”,BBCNews,September25,2006,

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5376860.stm

.

CharlesKEbingerandSharonSquassoni,“IndustryandEmergingNuclearEnergyMarkets”,inBusinessandNonproliferation:Industry’sRoleinSafeguardingaNuclearRenaissance,eds.JohnPBanksandCharlesKEbinger(WashingtonDC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2011),66–120.

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Mubarak’ssonGamal,whohadplayedaroleinEgypt’seconomicliberalisationandwaswidelyperceivedasbeinggroomedforsuccession.8Apopularuprising–partoftheArabSpring–inJanuary2011oustedMubarak.ThemilitaryplaceditselfinchargeofthedemocratictransitionandinJune2012MuhammadMursioftheMuslimBrotherhood’sFreedomandJusticePartywaselected.

Between2011and2013,afterMubarakhadbeenousted,theprojectwasneithercancellednorofficiallyfrozen,butlittleprogresswasmade.AlDabaawasstilldeemedthemostsuitablesiteforanuclearreactor,andthegovernmentstillcompensatedresidentswhowerebeingmovedfromAlDabaatomakewayforthepowerplant.However,therewerenoconsultationswithresidentsoverthisdecision.Meanwhile,thedisasteratthe

Fukushima

Daiichi

plantinMarch2011ledtorenewedpublicquestioningoftheroleofnuclearenergyinEgypt.9

Ontheone-yearanniversaryofMursi’srule,defenceministerGen.Abdal-Fattahal-Sisilaunchedacoupd’état.Hebecamepresidentin2014.10Depictinghimselfasthesaviourofthenation,Sisi’sagendahascentredontwokeypillars:restoringsecurityandstabilisingtheeconomy.Hisadministrationhasalsorestartedthenuclearproject.Itisseenasoneoftwo‘giantnationalprojects’thatthepresidenthasprioritised,alongsidetheexpansionoftheSuezCanal.11Theselarge-scale,top-downandmodernistprojectsareportrayedaspatrioticdutiesthatEgyptiansneedtoembraceandperhapsevenfund,asthegovernmenthasconsistentlysolicitedfundstoassistwiththebuildingoftheseprojects,suchastheLongLiveEgyptfund.12InNovember2015anuclearpowerplantwasestablishedattheAlDabaasiteonthecountry’snortherncoast(140kmfromAlexandria),inthegovernorateofMatrouh.Itisexpectedtocontainfour1200MWpressurisedwaterreactors(knownasVVER-1200).

Approximately85%ofthecurrentnuclearprojectisfundedbya$25billionloanfromROSATOM,theRussianatomicenergycorporation,repayableover22years.EgyptwillbeginrepayingtheloaninOctober2029onabiannualbasis,at3%interest.Theremaining15%ofthecostwillberaisedbytheEgyptiangovernment,butitisnotclearwhetherthiswillcomefromthepublicorprivatesector.TheRussianproposalforAlDabaawasreportedlythemostfavourable,withotherproposalsbyJapan,France,SouthKoreaandChina,althoughthedetailshavenotbeensharedwiththepublic.13

DominicMoran,“Egypt’sNuclearImbroglio”,CentreforSecurityStudies,ETHZurich,

https://css.ethz.ch/en/services/digital-library/

articles/article.html/106118

;“EgyptandNuclearPower:NuclearSuccession”,TheEconomist,September28,2006,

https://www.eco

/middle-east-and-africa/2006/09/28/nuclear-succession

.

EbingerandSquassoni,“IndustryandEmergingNuclear”,96.

RuthMichaelson,“ThreatofJailLoomsOverEvenMildestCriticsUnderEgyptianCrackdown”,TheGuardian,January24,2020,

/world/2020/jan/24/threat-of-jail-shapes-egyptian-lives-nine-years-after-uprising

.

SamiAbdelrahman,“NewChairmanoftheNuclearPowerPlantsAuthorityinFirstDialoguewith‘RosaElYoussef’”,Non-ProliferationPolicyEducationCenter,November15,2017,

/article.php?aid=1357&rtid=14

.

YezidSayegh,“OwnersoftheRepublic:AnAnatomyofEgypt’sMilitaryEconomy”(CarnegieMiddleEastCenter,Beirut,2019),208.

WalaaHussein,“RussiatoBuildEgyptianNuclearReactor”,AlMonitor,September4,2015,

/pulse/fr/

originals/2015/09/egypt-russia-offer-build-nuclear-reactor.html

.

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Theprofessedobjectiveoftheprojectistoachieveself-sufficiencyinenergyamidincreasingdemandandagrowingpopulationofaround100millionpeople

Theprofessedobjectiveoftheprojectistoachieveself-sufficiencyinenergyamidincreasingdemandandagrowingpopulationofaround100millionpeople.However,theprojecthasalsobeenframedinundertonesofnationalprestige.Inpoliticalspeeches,theplanthasbeenlikenedtoothermomentscelebratedandcommemoratedintheofficialnationaldiscourse.14Inadditiontotheabsenceofpublicinput,manyoftheseprojectshavebeenmarkedbyalackoftransparencyovertenders.ThetextandtermsoftheEgyptian–RussianagreementontheconstructionofAlDabaa,forexample,havenotbeenmadepublic.AsidefromtheNuclearPowerPlantsAuthority(NPPA),whosebudgetissubjecttoparliamentaryoversight,Egypt’sbudgetfornuclearaffairsandinstitutionsisalsoopaque.Indeed,immediatelyaftertheagreement,Egyptimposedagagorderonanynewsrelatedtothepowerplant.15

Ghana

Ghana’semergingnuclearpowerprogrammeistheculminationofnearly60yearsofsocio-economicandpoliticaldevelopmentsundersuccessivegovernmentssinceindependencein1957.Ghana’sfirstpresident,KwameNkrumah(1957–1966),wasanadvocateofpan-AfricanismandafoundingmemberoftheOrganizationofAfricanUnity(nowtheAU).16HisquesttogainglobalrecognitionforGhanaandensurethewell-beingofthecountrycentredonsecuringaccesstoenergyforitspeople.HearguedthatGhana’sdevelopmentandrapidindustrialisationrequiredaccesstosufficient,reliableandsustainableelectricalpower,ultimatelyinitiatingtheGhanaNuclearPowerProgramme(GNPP).

In1961Nkrumah’sgovernmentinstitutedamajoratomicpolicyinitiative–theKwabenyaNuclearReactorProject–andsetuptheGhanaAtomicEnergyCommitteetooverseeitsimplementation.TheKwabenyaNuclearReactorProjectwasestablishedto‘introducenuclearscienceandtechnologyintothecountry,andtoexploitnuclearenergyinits

Abdelrahman,“NewChairmanoftheNuclear”;seealsoStateInformationService,“NuclearProjectAbdelnasser’sDream”,

.eg/section/4683/4685?lang=enus&lang=en-us

.

“NGOsSlamEl-DabaaNuclearPowerPlantMediaGag”,DailyNewsEgypt,December29,2015,

https://wwww.dailynewssegypt.

com/2015/12/29/ngos-slam-el-dabaa-nuclear-power-plant-media-gag/

.

AfricanAmericanRegistry,“KwameNkrumahFatheredPan-Africanism”,

/story/kwame-nkrumah-fathered-

pan-africanism/

.

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TheKwabenyaNuclearReactorProjectwasestablishedto‘introducenuclearscienceandtechnologyintothecountry,andtoexploitnuclearenergyinitspeacefulapplications’

peacefulapplicationsforthesolutionofproblemsofnationaldevelopment’.17ItaimedtodevelopinfrastructurefortheGNPP,andacquirenucleartechnologytoprovidesufficientelectricityforindustrialisation.18In1963thefirstnuclearlegislation,theAtomicEnergyCommissionActNo.204of1963,wasenacted.Thiscreatedthe