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eneurship,ontheotherhand,hasbeenfocusingattentiononthecreativeprocess,particularlyofnewfirms.Wheretheyoverlapisatthenexusofthecreativeprocessofexistingfirms.Thus,eachfieldhasvastterrainsthatdonotoverlap.康,红th城is茂c尖ha睁pt找er仍n写ev耻er挂th掉el迅es孔s锡fo涂cu籍se如s帽ex鲜cl摊us匀iv己el弃y全on亡w艳he泳re嘱e教nt蓄re锣pr贫en抵eu肿rs血hi院p赴an塔d昼st船ra昌te涝gi谣c且ma尸na日ge渐me臭nt超o猛ve拍rl抹ap冠.Itisworthpointingoutherethatwhendiscussingcreativeprocessesintheeconomicdomain,strategyisasub-setofentrepreneurship.Forexample,foranygivennewtechnicalinventionthereare,atleastintheory,aninfinitenumberofproductpossibilitiesthatmayflowoutofthatinvention.But,inpractice,onlyafinitesub-setofthosepossibilitieswillcomeintoexistence.Ofthosenewproductsthatcomeintoexistence,onlyasub-setisintroducedbyexistingfirms.Indeed,alargenumberofnewproductsareintroducedintotheeconomybynewfirms.Strategyessentiallyfocusesonexistingfirmsandtheactivitiesofexistingfirms.Entrepreneurship,ontheotherhand,hasbeenfocusingattentiononthecreativeprocess,particularlyofnewfirms.Wheretheyoverlapisatthenexusofthecreativeprocessofexistingfirms.Thus,eachfieldhasvastterrainsthatdonotoverlap.户In张t兆he门p梯re在fa抗ce添t取o捆th丘ei惨r享19茧94着b高oo币k,喜R字um奔el钢t,砍S轮ch弱en容de惭l,鸡a雪nd阔T勿ee扎ce辰i逆de孔nt短if喷y享th丝e烫su记bj咸ec拍t赴ma锻tt标er说o慧f缺st榨ra手te拿gi掘c接ma绒na饶ge酬me外nt统a压s尚"t时he掩p末ur搜po修se语fu即l或di予re浸ct陶io谅n柳an跪d誉na亏tu取ra拼l两ev晴ol汁ut屋io爸n酱of御e闻nt棋er蛮pr盲is输es荒."扔(厦Ru圣me霜lt败,拥et搜.侍al萄.,雨1仓99伐4)尿T馒he按y抚fu战rt肿he誓r庸id费en狸ti酸fy临f苍ou凶r朋fu突nd雾am丽en凉ta股l坟is踏su唉es矛t冤ha奋t快co聚mp未ri嚼se碌a甜r捉es董ea驾rc这h帜ag狗en习da背i惑n仙st注ra弱te塞gi棉c苹ma流na医ge游me刮nt绕:导1.改 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燕Su善pp促ly娃s伞id课e:北素Ne菜w绩or担e吹xi播st桐in远g烫id布ea今/s丧o晋r幸in匪ve键nt赢io胳n/蕉s;斯2.稍糟 茅De猾ma枣nd个s光id葵e:扶O续ne歪o乎r变mo暮re订e本nd堵s要–仪ma逢y橡be轧s桥ub恰je虏ct惑iv冰e波(e桌nd方og看en卡ou敬s)搞a拥sp由ir妇at雷io技ns享o搜r宅ob倒je族ct白iv北e卵(e伤xo独ge倍no目us勤)优go武al狸s存or厉b派ot营h;Theentrepreneurnotonlyhasanideaforaproductorfirm,butalsohassomepersonalaspirationsand/orgoalsinpursuingtheopportunity.GoalscouldbeasspecificasmakinganIPOinfiveyearstocreatingalegacyfortheirchildren.Andaspirationscouldrangefrommakingmoneytoenjoyinganindependentlifestyletochangingtheworld.Furthermore,theseaspirationsandgoalscouldchangeandnewonescouldemergeovertime.Theentrepreneurnotonlyhasanideaforaproductorfirm,butalsohassomepersonalaspirationsand/orgoalsinpursuingtheopportunity.GoalscouldbeasspecificasmakinganIPOinfiveyearstocreatingalegacyfortheirchildren.Andaspirationscouldrangefrommakingmoneytoenjoyinganindependentlifestyletochangingtheworld.Furthermore,theseaspirationsandgoalscouldchangeandnewonescouldemergeovertime.涂3.瓜乞 册Be冰li皂ef较s级ab前ou拾t全th谷in筝gs裤f猜av秘or掠ab砖le油t太o权th兴e惕ac阿hi轨ev辰em穿en年t除of盒t钢ho戴se鸟e云nd支s;垂a由nd染,遥4.搏威 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刺us畅t臂o河a佩si暖mp摧le茅t父yp失ol宁og垂y挥of调e呆nt些re箩pr筝en话eu控ri船al习a瓜ct凳io悟ns俱i掌n喉re刊la恼ti掀on衰t桑o惧op棵po虽rt或un临it动ie河s恒as览f踪ol忧lo征ws吵:1.OpportunityRecognitionIfbothsourcesofsupplyanddemandexistratherobviously,theopportunityforbringingthemtogetherhastobe"recognized"andthenthematch-upbetweensupplyanddemandhastobeimplementedeitherthroughanexistingfirmoranewfirm.Examplesincludearbitrageandfranchises.Forexample,throughitsfirstsuccessfulcoffeeshop,Starbucksprovedtheexistenceofademandforspecialtycoffeesasalsoaviableandeffectivewaytosatisfythatdemand.Thereafter,eachStarbucksfranchiseeonlyhastorecognizepotentialgeographiclocationsforextendingthatdemandandsupplycombination.Theydonothavetoinventsourcesofsupply,orinducedemandforacompletelynewproduct.2.OpportunityDiscoveryIfonlyonesideexistsinanobviousmannerandtheothersideeitherdoesnotexistorissolatentastobevirtuallynon-existentformostpeople--i.e.,demandexists,butsupplydoesnot,andviceversa--then,thenon-existentsidehastobe"discovered"beforethematch-upcanbeimplemented.Inotherwords,whendemandexists;supplyhastobediscovered.AnexampleofthisisRonPopeilandhisinventionsformoreconvenientandhealthconsciouskitchendevices.Ontheothersideofthecoin,supplymightexist;thendemandhastobediscovered.Thehistoryoftechnologyentrepreneurshipisstrewnwithsolutionsinsearchofproblems.XeroxhadthetechnologyfortheMacintoshcomputer,butittookJobsandWozniaktodiscoverandexploititspotentialdemand.3.OpportunityCreationIfneithersupplynordemandexistinanobviousmanner,oneorbothhavetobe"created",andseveraleconomicinventionsinmarketing,financing,managementetc.havetobemade,fortheopportunitytocomeintoexistence.ExamplesincludeWedgwoodPottery,Edison'sGeneralElectric,U-Haul,AESCorporation,Netscape,BeanieBabies,andtheMIRspaceresort.Historically,opportunitieshavebeensupposedtoexist--andtheentrepreneureitherisalerttothem(Kirzner,1979)orsomehowgoesabout"discovering"them(Hayek,1945andSchumpeter,1976).Buttheideawewillexploreinthischapteristhatentrepreneurialopportunitiesoftenhavetobe"created"byusingtheentrepreneurialimaginationtoembodyhumanaspirationsinconcreteproductsandmarkets.THECREATIVEENTREPRENEURIALASPECTSOFFUNDAMENTALISSUESINSTRATEGICMANAGEMENT1. FirmBehavior--EmphasizingthecreativityofhumanactionHowdofirmsbehave?Or,dofirmsreallybehavelikerationalactors,and,ifnot,whatmodelsoftheirbehaviorshouldbeusedbyresearchersandpolicymakers?RationalActionEconomicshaslongrestedonfoundationsofrationalaction;andithaslongbeencriticizedforit.Forexample,studieshaveshownthatthatthereareseverelimits--lackofknowledge,computationalability,andabilitytoconsidermorethanafewfactorssimultaneously--thatplaceanupperboundonhumanobjectiverationality(Simon,1959;Payne,Bettman&Johnson,1993;Bar-Hillel,1980;Tversky&Kahneman,1982).Althoughthisdoesnotimplythatdecisionmakersareirrational,itshowsthattheymustusuallyuseheuristicsandapproximateinductivelogics--thatneverthelessoftenleadtoveryeffectivedecisions(Gigerenzer,Hell&Blank,1988).Theyseldomhavetheluxuryofbehavinglikeutilitymaximizers.Butmostcriticismsofthe"rational"foundationsofeconomicsattackandtrytorelaxassumptionsofrationalityratherthanprovideanoverarchingalternativeframework.In1991,however,BuchananandVanbergcalledformoredrasticmeasures,particularlyforourunderstandingofentrepreneurship(Buchanan&Vanberg,1991).Inthatpaper,theyarguefortheusefulnessofaperceptualconstructofthemarketasacreativeprocess,ratherthanasadiscoveryprocess,orthemorefamiliarallocativeprocess.Theirargumentsarebasedonafundamentalassumptionofthefuturethatisnotmerelyunknown,butessentiallyunknowable.Onlyspeculationsandconjecturesarepossibleaboutthefuturebecausethefutureiscreatedbythechoicesthathumanbeingsmake:“Entrepreneurialactivity,inparticular,isnottobemodeledasdiscoveryofthatwhichis“outthere.〞Suchactivity,bycontrast,createsarealitythatwillbedifferentsubsequentondifferingchoices.Hence,therealityofthefuturemustbeshapedbychoicesyettobemade,andthisrealityhasnoexistenceindependentofthesechoices.Withregardtoa“yettobecreated〞reality,itissurelyconfusingtoconsideritsemergenceintermsofthediscoveryof“overlookedopportunities.〞(178)CreativeactionPursuanttothedetailedargumentsadvancedbyBuchananandVanberg,weproposethefollowinganswertothefirstfundamentalissueinstrategicmanagement:Firmsbehavecreatively.Firmsnotonlyuserationalandanalyticaldecisionmaking,theyalsousecreativeactionasawaytofigureoutbothgoalsandstrategiesinanintrinsicallydynamicprocess.IfwearetobuildtheoriesofstrategicmanagementandentrepreneurshipbasedoncreativeratherthanrationalactionWeusetheterms“rationalaction〞Weusetheterms“rationalaction〞and“creativeaction〞intheirprecisephilosophical/sociologicalmeanings–suchasthoseusedbyParsonsandJoasrespectively(Parsons,19xx;Joas,1996).Wewanttostressthatwedonotmeancreativeactiontobe“irrational〞,nordowesuggestthatrationalitycannotleadtocreativeoutcomes