英语考级-2015年06月六级真题（第3套）

大学英语六级考试2015年6月真题(第三套)PartIWriting (30minutes)Directions:Forthispart,youareallowed30minutestowriteanessaycommentingonthesaying“Ifyoucannotdogreatthings,dosmallthingsinagreatway."Youcanciteexamplestoillustrateyourpointofview.Youshouldwriteatleast150wordsbutnomorethan200words.PartⅡListeningComprehension (30minutes)SectionADirections:Inthissection,youwillheartwolongconversations.Attheendofeachconversation,youwillhearfourquestions.Boththeconversationandthequestionswillbespokenonlyonce.Afteryouhearaquestion,youmustchoosethebestanswerfromthefourchoicesmarkedA),B),C)andD).ThenmarkthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet1withasinglelinethroughthecentre.ConversationOneQuestions1to4arebasedontheconversationyouhavejustheard.1. A)Itiswellpaid. C)Itisdemanding. B)Itisstimulating. D)Itisfairlysecure.2. A)Aquickpromotion. C)Movingexpenses. B)Freeaccommodation. D)Alighterworkload.3. A)Hehasdifficultycommunicatingwithlocalpeople. B)Hehastospendalotmoretravelingbackandforth. C)Hehastroubleadaptingtothelocalweather. D)Hehastosignalong-termcontract.4. A)Thewomanwillhelpthemanmakeachoice. B)Themanisgoingtoattendajobinterview. C)Themanisintheprocessofjobhunting. D)Thewomansympathizeswiththeman.ConversationTwoQuestions5to8arebasedontheconversationyouhavejustheard.5. A)Toinquireabouttheinterestratesatthewoman’sbank. B)Toinquireaboutthecurrentfinancialmarketsituation. C)Toseeifhecanfindajobinthewoman’scompany. D)Toseeifhecangetaloanfromthewoman’sbank.6. A)Thereisnodifferencebetweenrateandyield. B)Themanhasagoodunderstandingofrateandyield. C)Therateisthepercentageofsimpleinterestpaidonthemoney. D)Theyieldisonlyinfluencedbytheamountofmoney.7. A)Long-terminvestment. C)Anyhigh-interestdeposit. B)Athree-monthdeposit. D)Anyhigh-yieldinvestment.8. A)Shetreatedhimtoameal. C)Sheofferedhimdiningcoupons. B)Shegavehimloansatlowrates. D)Sheraisedinterestratesforhim.SectionBDirections:Inthissection,youwillheartwopassages.Attheendofeachpassage,youwillhearthreeorfourquestions.Boththepassageandthequestionswillbespokenonlyonce.Afteryouhearaquestion,youmustchoosethebestanswerfromthefourchoicesmarkedA),B),C)andD).ThenmarkthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet1withasinglelinethroughthecentre.PassageOneQuestions9to12arebasedonthepassageyouhavejustheard.9. A)ItisaPortuguesecompanysellingcoffeeinNewYork. B)Itsmostimportanttaskistoconductcoffeestudies. C)Itrepresentsseveralcountriesthatexportcoffee. D)Itsroleistoregulateinternationalcoffeeprices.10. A)ThefreezingweatherinBrazil. C)Theincreasedcoffeeconsumption. B)Theimpactofglobalwarming. D)Thefluctuationofcoffeeprices.11. A)Heisdoingabachelor’sdegree. C)Heisaheavycoffeedrinker. B)Heisyoung,handsomeandsingle. D)Heistall,richandintelligent.12. A)Avisittoseveralcoffee-growingplantations. B)Coffeepricesandhisadvertisingcampaign. C)Avacationonsomebeautifultropicalbeach. D)Aquickpromotionandahandsomeincome.PassageTwoQuestions13to15arebasedonthepassageyouhavejustheard.13. A)Theywereheldupinatrafficjam. B)Theyboardedawrongcoachinahurry. C)Theywerelateforthefirstmorningbus. D)Theyweredelayedbythetrainforhours.14. A)Itwascanceledbecauseofanunexpectedstrike. C)Itwasspoiledbypooraccommodations. B)Itwasthemostexcitingtriptheyeverhad. D)Itwaspostponedduetoterribleweather.15. A)Gooverseas. C)Takeromanticcruises. B)Stayathome. D)Takeescortedtrips.SectionCDirections:Inthissection,youwillhearthreerecordingsoflecturesortalksfollowedbythreeorfourquestions.Therecordingswillbeplayedonlyonce.Afteryouhearaquestion,youmustchoosethebestanswerfromthefourchoicesmarkedA),B),C)andD).ThenmarkthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet1withasinglelinethroughthecentre.Questions16to19arebasedontherecordingyouhavejustheard.16. A)Theirextraordinaryintelligence. C)Thewaytheycommunicate. B)Thespecialbonesintheirfins. D)Thewaytheygetwater.17. A)Theylovetokeepthemaspetsjustlikecatsanddogs. B)Theylovethembutcannotlivewiththem. C)Theycanfindmanystoressellingsuchsouvenirs. D)Theybelievesuchsouvenirscanbringgoodluck.18. A)Theymadethemswimaroundtheirships. B)Theypaintedtheirimagesonsomeitems. C)Theyhuntedthemingreatnumbers. D)Theytrainedthemtoperformtricks.19. A)TheyarehuntedinmanyplacesexceptJapan. B)Theyhavebeenprotectedthankstoliteratureandfilm. C)Theyhaveadaptedtothelifeincaptivity. D)Theyarelosingtheirhabitatandcleansea.Questions20to22arebasedontherecordingyouhavejustheard.20. A)Itwon’thaveanyside-effect. B)Itcankilldrug-resistanttumours. C)Itcanbeaseffectiveasconventionaltreatments. D)Itcanstopcancercellsfromspreadinginthebody.21. A)Howtofindawaytodelivervirusestotumourseffectively. B)Howtoinjectvirusesdirectlyintotumours. C)Howtoallowvirusestodowhatchemotherapydrugsdo. D)Howtostrengthenthebody’simmunesystem.22. A)Touseittocure75%ofthepatientswithmalignantcancers. B)Tomakeitacceptedbythepatientswithincurablecancers. C)Toapplyittothosewithsecondarycancers. D)Toapplyittotreatallkindsofcancers.Questions23to25arebasedontherecordingyouhavejustheard.23. A)ItallowsusersofsomeKindledevicestoborrowbooksfromlocallibraries. B)IthasbenefitedmorethaneleventhousandlocallibrariesintheUS. C)Ithasledtoadebatebetweenpublishersandlibrariesovere-booklending. D)Itaimsatallowingeveryonetoreadbooksanytimetheylike.24. A)Theycanpurchaseanykindofmediaproduct. B)Theycanlendbookstoreadersrepeatedly. C)Theycandealwithdigitalproductsastheylike. D)Theycanlimitthetimethereaderskeepacertainbook.25. A)Byallowinglibrariestopurchasee-booksforlendinginperpetuity. B)Byadoptingthetechnologyknownasdigitalrightsmanagement. C)Byrequiringlibrariestopurchasemoreofitse-book. D)Bypersuadingthecriticstosupportthepublishers.PartⅢReadingComprehension (40minutes)SectionADirections:Inthissection,thereisapassagewithtenblanks.Youarerequiredtoselectonewordforeachblankfromalistofchoicesgiveninawordbankfollowingthepassage.Readthepassagethroughcarefullybeforemakingyourchoices.Eachchoiceinthebankisidentifiedbyaletter.PleasemarkthecorrespondingletterforeachitemonAnswerSheet2withasinglelinethroughthecentre.Youmaynotuseanyofthewordsinthebankmorethanonce.Questions26to35arebasedonthefollowingpassage.Travelwebsiteshavebeenaroundsincethe1990s,whenExpedia,Travelocity,andotherholidaybookingsiteswerelaunched,allowingtravelerstocompareflightandhotelpriceswiththeclickofamouse.Withinformationnolonger__26__bytravelagentsorhiddeninbusinessnetworks,thetravelindustrywasrevolutionized,asgreatertransparencyhelped__27__prices.Today,theindustryisgoingthroughanewrevolution—thistimetransformingservicequality.Onlineratingplatforms—__28__inhotels,restaurants,apartments,andtaxis—allowtravelerstoexchangereviewsandexperiencesforalltosee.Hospitalitybusinessesarenowranked,analyzed,andcomparednotbyindustry__29__,butbytheverypeopleforwhomtheserviceisintended—thecustomer.Thishas__30__anewrelationshipbetweenbuyerandseller.Customershavealwaysvotedwiththeirfeet;theycannowexplaintheirdecisiontoanyonewhoisinterested.Asaresult,businessesaremuchmore__31__,ofteninveryspecificways,whichcreatespowerful__32__toimproveservice.Althoughsomereadersmightnotcareforgossipyreportsofunfriendlybellboys（行李员)inBerlinormalfunctioninghotelhairdryersinHouston,thetruepowerofonlinereviewsliesnotjustintheindividualstories,butinthewebsites’__33__toaggregatealargevolumeofratings.Theimpactcannotbe__34__.Businessesthatattracttopratingscanenjoyrapidgrowth,asnewcustomersareattractedbygoodreviewsand__35__provideyetmorepositivefeedback.SogreatistheinfluenceofonlineratingsthatmanycompaniesnowhiredigitalreputationmanagerstoensureafavorableonlinefessionalsprofessionalsslashspecializingspectatorssubsequentlyaccountablecapacitycontrolledentailforgedincentivesoccasionallyoverstatedpersistingpessimisticSectionBDirections:Inthissection,youaregoingtoreadapassagewithtenstatementsattachedtoit.Eachstatementcontainsinformationgiveninoneoftheparagraphs.Identifytheparagraphfromwhichtheinformationisderived.Youmaychooseaparagraphmorethanonce.Eachparagraphismarkedwithaletter.AnswerthequestionsbymarkingthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet2.PlasticSurgeryAbettercreditcardisthesolutiontoeverlargerhackattacks.[A]Athinmagneticstripe(magstripe)isallthatstandsbetweenyourcredit-cardinformationandthebadguys.Andthey’vebeenworkinghardtobreakin.That’swhy2014isshapingupasamajorshowdown:banks,lawenforcementandtechnologycompaniesarealltryingtostopanetworkofhackerswhoaresucceedinginstealingaccountnumbers,names,emailaddressesandothercrucialdatausedinidentitytheft.Morethan100millionaccountsatTarget,NeimanMarcusandMichaelsstoreswereaffectedinsomewayduringthemostrecentattacks,startinglastNovember.[B]Swipe（刷卡）istheoperativeword:cardsareincreasinglyvulnerabletoattackswhenyoumakepurchasesinastore.Inseveralrecentincidents,hackershavebeenabletoobtainmassiveinformationofcredit-debit-(借记)orprepaid-cardnumbersusingmalware,i.e.malicioussoftware,insertedsecretlyintotheretailers’point-of-salesystem—thecheckoutregisters.Hackersthensoldthedatatoasecondgroupofcriminalsoperatinginshadowycornersoftheweb.Notlongafter,thestolendatawasshowinguponfakecardsandbeingusedforonlinepurchases.[C]Thesolutioncouldcostaslittleas$2extraforeverypieceofplasticissued.ThefixisasecuritytechnologyusedheavilyoutsidetheU.S.WhileAmericancreditcardsusethe40-year-oldmagstripetechnologytoprocesstransactions,muchoftherestoftheworldusessmartercardswithatechnologycalledEMV(shortforEuropay,MasterCard,Visa)thatemploysachipembeddedinthecardplusacustomerPIN(personalidentificationnumber)toauthenticate（验证）everytransactiononthespot.IfapurchaserfailstopunchinthecorrectPINatthecheckout,thetransactiongetsrejected.(Onlinepurchasescanbemadebysettingupaseparatetransactioncode.[D]Whyhaven’tbigbanksadoptedthemoresecuretechnology?Whenitcomestomailingoutnewcreditcards,it’sallaboutrelativecosts,saysDavidRobertson,whorunstheNilsonReport,anindustrynewsletter.“Thecostofthecard,puttingthestickeronit,codingtheaccountnumberandexpirationdate,embossing（凸印）it,thesmallenvelope—allputtogether,you’reinthedollarrange.”Achip-and-PINcardcurrentlycostscloserto$3,saysRobertson,becauseofthepriceofchips.(Oncelargeissuersconverttogether,thechipcostsshoulddrop.[E]Multiply$3bythemorethan5billionmagstripecreditandprepaidcardsincirculationintheU.S.Thenconsiderthatthere’sanestimated$12.4billionincardfraudonaglobalbasis,saysRobertson.With44%ofthatintheU.S.Americancredit-cardfraudamountstoabout$5.5billionannually.CardissuershavesofarcalculatedthatabsorbingtheliabilityforevenbighacksliketheTargetoneisstillcheaperthanreplacingallthatplastic.[F]ThatleavesAmericanretailersprettymuchalonetheworldoverinrelyingonmagstripetechnologytochargepurchases—andleavesconsumersvulnerable.Eachmagstripehasthreetracksofinformation,explainspaymentssecurityexpertJeremyGumbley,thechieftechnologyofficerofCreditCall,anelectronic-paymentscompany.Thefirstandthirdareusedbythebankorcardissuer.Yourvitalaccountinformationlivesonthesecondtrack,whichhackerstrytocapture.“Malwareisscanningthroughthememoryinrealtimeandlookingfordata,”hesays.“Itcreatesatextfilethatgetsstolen.”[G]Chip-and-PINcards,bycontrast,makefakecardsorskimmingimpossiblebecausetheinformationthatgetsscannedisencrypted（加密）.ThehistoricalreasontheU.S.hasstuckwithmagstripe,ironicallyenough,isoncesuperiortechnology.Ourcheap,ultra-reliablewirednetworksmadecredit-cardauthenticationoverthephonefrictionless.InFrance,cardcompaniescreatedEMVinpartbecausethetelephonemonopolywassomaddeninglyinefficientandexpensive.TheEMVsolutionallowedtransactionstobeverifiedlocallyandsecurely.[H]Somebigbanks,likeWellsFargo,arenowofferingtoconvertyourmagstripecardtoachip-and-PINmodel.(It’sactuallyahybrid（混合体）thatwillstillhaveamagstripe,sincemostU.S.merchantsdon’thaveEMVterminals.)Shouldyoutakethemuponit?Ifyoutravelinternationally,theanswerisyes.[I]Keepinmind,too,thatcreditcardstypicallyhavebetterliabilityprotectionthandebitcards.Ifsomeoneusesyourcreditcardfraudulently（欺诈性的），it’stheissuerormerchant,notyou,thattakesthehit.Debitcardshavedifferentliabilitylimitsdependingonthebankandtheeventssurroundinganyfraud.“Ifit’savailable,thelogicalthingistogetachip-and-PINcardfromyourbank,”saysEricAdamowsky,aco-founderofCreditC.“Iwouldusecreditcardsoverdebitcardsbecauseofliabilityissues.”Cashstillworksprettywelltoo.[J]Retailersandbanksstandtobenefitfromthelowerfraudlevelsofchip-and-PINcardsbuthavebeenreluctantforyearstoinvestinthenewinfrastructure（基础设施）neededforthetechnology,especiallyifconsumersdon’thaveaccesstoit.It’sachicken-and-eggproblem:noonewantstospendthemoneyonupgradedpoint-of-salesystemsthatcanreadthechipcardsifshoppersaren’tcarryingthem—yetthere’slittlepointinconsumers’carryingthefancyplasticifstoresaren’tequippedtousethem.(AnearliereffortbyTargettomovetochipandPINnevergainedprogress.)AccordingtoGumbley,there’sa“you-firstmentality.Thelogjam（僵局）hastobebroken.”[K]JPMorganChaseCEOJamieDimonrecentlyexpressedhiswillingnesstodoso,notingthatbanksandmerchantshavespentthepastdecadesuingeachotheroverinterchangefees—thepercentageofthetransactionpricetheykeep—ratherthandealwiththegrowinghackingproblem.Chaseoffersachip-enabledcardunderitsownbrandandseveralothersfortravel-relatedcompaniessuchasBritishAirwaysandRitz-Carlton.[L]TheTargetandNeimanhackshavealsochangedthecostcalculation:althoughretailershavebeenreluctanttospendthe$6.75billionthatCapgeminiconsultantsestimateitwilltaketoconvertalltheirregisterstobechip-and-PIN-compatible,thepotentialliabilitytheynowfaceisdramaticallygreater.Targethasbeenhitwithclassactionsfromhackedconsumers.“It’stheultimatenightmare,”aretailexecutivefromawell-knownchainadmittedtoTIME.[M]Thecard-paymentcompaniesMasterCardandVisaarepushinghardforchange.Thetwofirmshavewarnedallpartiesinthetransactionchain—merchant,network,bank—thatiftheydon’tbecomeEMV-compliantbyOctober2015,thepartythatisleastcompliantwillbearthefraudrisk.[N]Inthemeantime,app-equippedsmartphonesanddigitalwallets—allofwhichcanuseEMVtechnology—arebeginningtomakeinroads（侵染）oncardsandcash.PayPal,forinstance,istestinganappthatletsyouuseyourmobilephonetopayontheflyatlocalmerchants—withoutsurrenderinganycardinformationtothem.Andfurtherdowntheroadisbiometricauthentication,whichcouldbeencryptedwith,say,afingerprint.[O]Creditanddebitcards,though,aregoingtobewithusfortheforeseeablefuture,andsoarehackers,ifwestickwithmagstripetechnology.“Itseemscrazytome,”saysGumbley,whoisEnglish,“thatacutting-edge-technologycountryisdependingona40-year-oldtechnology.”That’swhyitmaybeuptoconsumerstomovetheneedleonchipandPIN.SaysRobertson:“ Whenyougettheconsumerintoapositionofworryandinconvenience,that’swheretherubberhitstheroad.”36.ItisbesttouseanEMVcardforinternationaltravel.37.Personalinformationoncreditanddebitcardsisincreasinglyvulnerabletohacking.38.TheFrenchcardcompaniesadoptedEMVtechnologypartlybecauseofinefficienttelephoneservice.39.WhilemanycountriesusethesmarterEMVcards,theU.S.stillclingstoitsoldmagstripetechnology.40.Attemptsarebeingmadetopreventhackersfromcarryingoutidentitytheft.41.Creditcardsaremuchsafertousethandebitcards.42.Bigbankshavebeenreluctanttoswitchtomoresecuretechnologybecauseofthehighercostsinvolved.43.Thepotentialliabilityforretailersusingmagstripeisfarmorecostlythanupgradingtheirregisters.44.TheuseofmagstripecardsbyAmericanretailersleavesconsumersexposedtotherisksoflosingaccountinformation.45.ConsumerswillbeadrivingforcebehindtheconversionfrommagstripetoEMVtechnology.SectionCDirections:Thereare2passagesinthissection.Eachpassageisfollowedbysomequestionsorunfinishedstatements.ForeachofthemtherearefourchoicesmarkedA),B),C)andD).YoushoulddecideonthebestchoiceandmarkthecorrespondingletteronAnswerSheet2withasinglelinethroughthecentre.PassageOneQuestions46to50arebasedonthefollowingpassage.What’stheonewordofadviceawell-meaningprofessionalwouldgivetoarecentcollegegraduate?China?India?Brazil?Howabouttrade?WhentheCommerceDepartmentreportedlastweekthatthetradedeficitinJuneapproached$50billion,itsetoffanewroundofeconomicdoomsaying.Imports,whichsoaredto$200.3billioninthemonth,aresubtractedinthecalculationofgrossdomesticproduct.Thelargerthetradedeficit,thesmallertheGDP.Shouldsuchimbalancescontinue,pessimistssay,theycouldcontributetoslowergrowth.Butthere'sanotherwayoflookingatthetradedata.Overthepasttwoyears,thefiguresonimportsandexportsseemnottosignaladouble-diprecession--areneweddeclineinthebroadlevelofeconomicactivityintheUnitedStates-butaneconomicexpansion.Therisingvolumeoftrade—moregoodsandservicesshuttlinginandoutoftheUnitedStates—isgoodnewsformanysectors.Companiesengagedinshipping,trucking,railfreight,delivery,andlogistics(物流)haveallbeenreportingbetterthanexpectedresults.Therisingnumberssignifygrowingvitalityinforeignmarket—whenweimportmorestuff,itputsmorecashinthehandsofpeoplearoundtheworld,andU.S.exportsarerisingbecausemoreforeignershavetheabilitytobuythethingsweproduceandmarket.Therisingtideoftradeisalsogoodnewsforpeoplewhoworkintrade-sensitivebusinesses,especiallythosethatproducecommoditiesforwhichglobaldemandsetstheprice-agriculturalgoods,mining,metals,oil.Andwhileexportsalwaysseemtolag,U.S.companiesarebecomingmoreinvolvedintheglobaleconomywitheachpassingmonth.GeneralMotorssellsasmanycarsinChinaasinAmericaeachmonth.Whilethatmaynotdomuchforimports,itdoeshelpGM'sbalancesheet—andhencemakesthejobsofU.S.-basedexecutivesmorestable.OnegreatchallengefortheU.S.economyisslackdomesticconsumerdemand.Americansarepayingdowndebt,savingmore,andspendingmorecarefully.That'stobeexpected,givenwhatwe'vebeenthrough.Butthere’sabiggerchallenge.CanU.S.-basedbusinesses,largeandsmall,figureouthowtogetapieceofgrowingglobaldemand?UnlessyouwanttopickupandmovetoIndia,orBrazil,orChina,thebestwaytodothatisthroughtrade.Itmayseemobvious,butit'snolongerenoughsimplytodobusinesswithourfriendsandneighborshereathome.Companiesandindividualswhodon'thaveastrategytoexportmore,ortogetmoreinvolvedinforeignmarkets,ortoplayaroleinglobaltrade,areshuttingthemselvesoutofthelion’sshareofeconomicopportunityinourworld.46.HowdopessimistsinterprettheU,S.tradedeficitinJune?A)ItreflectsAmericans'preferenceforimportedgoods.B)ItsignifiesachangeinAmericaneconomicstructure.C)Itcouldleadtoslowergrowthofthenationaleconomy.D)ItistheresultofAmerica'sgrowingfocusondomesticmarket.47.Whatdoestheauthorsayaboutthetradedataofthepasttwoyears?A)ItindicatesthateconomicactivitiesintheU.S.haveincreased.B)Itsignalsdecreasingdomesticdemandforgoodsandservices.C)Itreflectsthefluctuationsintheinternationalmarket.D)ItshowsthatU.S.economyisslippingfurtherintorecession.48.Whoparticularlybenefitfromtherisingvolumeoftrade?A)Peoplewhohaveexpertiseininternationaltrade.C)Producersofagriculturalgoodsandrawmaterials.B)Consumerswhofavorimportedgoodsandservices.D)Retailersdealinginforeigngoodsandservices.49.WhatisoneofthechallengesfacingtheAmericaneconomy?A)Decreasingproductivity.B)Competitionfromoverseas.C)People'sreluctancetospend.D)Slacktradeactivities.50.Whatistheauthor'sadvicetoU.S.companiesandindividuals?A)Toimportmorecheapgoodsfromdevelopingcountries.B)Toincreasetheirmarketshareoverseas.C)Tobealerttofluctuationsinforeignmarkets.D)Tomovetheircompaniestowherelaborischeaper.PassageTwoQuestions51to55arebasedonthefollowingpassage.ArecurringcriticismoftheUK'suniversitysectorisitsperceivedweaknessintranslatingnewknowledgeintonewproductsandservices.Recently,theUKNationalStemCellNetworkwarnedtheUKcouldloseitsplaceamongtheworldleadersinstemcellresearchunlessadequatefundingandlegislationcouldbeassured.Weshouldtakethisconcernseriouslyasuniversitiesarekeyinthenationalinnovationsystem.However,wedohavetochallengetheunthinkingcomplaintthatthesectordoesnotdoenoughintakingideastomarket.ThemostrecentcomparativedataontheperformanceofuniversitiesandresearchinstitutionsinAustralia,Canada,USAandUKshowsthat,fromarelativelyweakstartingposition,theUKnowleadsonmanyindicatorsofcommercialisationactivity.Whenviewedatthenationallevel,thepolicyinterventionsofthepastdecadehavehelpedtransformtheperformanceofU.K.universities.EvidencesuggeststheUK’spositionismuchstrongerthanintherecentpastandisstillshowingimprovement.Butnationaldatamaskstheverylargevariationintheperformanceofindividualuniversities.Theevidenceshowsthatalargenumberofuniversitieshavefallenoffthebackofthepack,afewperformstronglyandtherestchasetheleaders.ThistypeofunevendistributionisnotpeculiartotheU.K.andismirroredacrossothereconomies.IntheUK,researchisconcentrated:lessthan25%ofuniversitiesreceive75%oftheresearchfunding.ThesesameuniversitiesarealsotheinstitutionsproducingthegreatestshareofPhDgraduate,sciencecitations,patentsandlicenceincome.Theeffectofpoliciesgeneratinglong-termresourceconcentrationhasalsocreatedadistinctivesetofuniversitieswhichareresearch-ledandcommerciallyactive.Itseemsclearthattheconcentrationofresearchandcommercialisationworkcreatesdifferencesbetweenuniversities.Thecoreobjectiveforuniversitieswhichareresearch-ledmustbetomaximisetheimpactoftheirresearchefforts.Theseuniversitiesshouldbegeneratingthewidestr