当代语言学导论复习要点详细!含课后单词

IntroductiontoContemporaryLinguisticsChapter1三Humansuperiorityliesinhisuniqueendowment……theabilitytotalk,orrather,tocommunicatebymeansoflanguage.④Talmud:godcreatedtheworldbyaword,instantaneously,withouttoilorpains.Widdowson:theprimacyoflanguageinthewayhumanbeingsconceiveoftheworld.:士Languageisavehicleofpower,forcontrol,forcreation,andforchange.④Thestudyofhumanlanguageiscalledlinguistics.Linguisticsdealswithhumanlanguageasawholeorasparticularlanguages.Asawhole:thesystemofhumancommunicationwhichconsistsofthestructuredarrangementofsounds(ortheirwrittenrepresentation)intolargerunits,e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterances.Asparticularlanguage:likeFrenchlanguage,theyareparticularsystemsofhumancommunicationusedbypeoplelivingindifferentpartsoftheworld.:士Thereisacontinuumfromonelanguagetoanother.④Varietiesoflanguage:Anyparticularlanguageisinessenceasetofvarieties.localvarieties区域变体-dialectsandaccents(theformerdifferfromeachotherinpronunciation,vocabulary,andevengrammar;thelatteronlyinpronunciation)socialvarieties—sociolects社会方言(=$0白21dialects,usedbypeopleofdifferentclasses,ages,orsexes),historicalvarieties—temporalvariety.(e.g.the17thcenturyEnglish)stylisticoroccupationalvarieties---registers语域3£.formalEnglish,scientificEnglish)individualvarieties—idiolects个人语言.Usuallyalanguagehasanofficiallydeclaredorgenerallyconsideredstandarddialect(e.g.PutonghuainChina,GeneralAmericanintheUS)FromPrescriptivismtoDescriptivism口Prescriptivismistheviewthatonevarietyoflanguagehasaninherentlyhighervaluethanothers.(trytoimposerulesfromsomehighprestigelanguagetosomelowerprestigelanguage,likeLatinandEnglish)④Descriptivismisthepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.Usagesofdifferentvarietiesshouldbeobservedandrecordedinsteadofbeingjudgedwithsomeimposednorms.Endowedorconventional?④Plato,sproblem:Howcaneveryhumanbeingdeveloparichsystemoflinguisticknowledgeonthebasisoflimitedandfragmentaryempiricalevidence?④Sideofendowment:门21M515（天生论）ormentalists（心智说）Plato:Man’sknowledgecamefromuniversaltruths.Therewasauniversallycorrectandacceptablelogicoflanguageformantofollowinexpressinghisideas.Knowledgeoflanguagewasnotlearnedbutrecalled.Chomsky:Thereisabiological,physiologicalentityinsideourbrainwhichdecideswhatwespeak.Chomskyhasgivenanametothisentity UG,oruniversalgrammar.Hisepistemologyoftheknowledgeoflanguagefoesasfollows:Everyhumanbeinghasthelanguagecompetence能力，becausehehastheinbornUGwhichotherspecieslack.UGistheinitialstateofthehumanlanguagefaculty语言器官/机制whichalonecannotenableahumanbabytospeak.Ababyneedstobeexposedtothelinguisticenvironmentofacertainlanguageandaccumulateexperience.Duetotheeffectoflaterexperience,thebaby’sminddevelopsfromtheinitialstateintothesteadystate,whichcorrespondstothecompetenceofspeakingaspecifichumanlanguage.④Sideofconvention:behavioristorempiricistsAristotle:knowledgeoflanguagewasarrivedatbyconventionandagreementofthespeakersofagivenlanguage.Xunzi:anamewasacceptedthroughpublicagreement,andtheappropriatenessofnamingathinglayinconvention.Thepoweroflanguageexistsinitscountlessvarieties,notrelyingonanyuniversalstandard.④Connectionism:士Diachronic（历经时间的）：focusonthecomparisonbetweenlanguagesandtheexplorationofthehistoricalchangeandvariationofsomeancientlanguages./of,relatingto,ordealingwithphenomena（asoflanguageorculture）astheyoccurorchangeoveraperiodoftime口Synchronic（共时的）:researchofthefactsoflanguageagreeduponorsharedbyhismembersoflanguagecommunityatagivenpointintime./concernedwitheventsexistinginalimitedtimeperiodandignoringhistoricalantecedentsGlossary可；Endowments:（天赋）thenaturalqualitythatapersonismaderichoffromthebirth.Register:（语域）thewords,style,andgrammarusedbyspeakersandwritersinparticularconditions,namelyasociallydefinedvarietyoflanguage.Idiolect:（个人语言）thelinguisticsystemofanindividualspeaker.soSociolect:（社会方言）alsosocialdialect.Varietyofalanguagedefinedbysocialfactorssuchasage,religion,ethnicity,orsocioeconomicstatus.Sociolectsmaybeclassedashighorlow（instatus）.Prescriptivism:（规定主义）theimpositionofarbitrarynormsuponalanguage,oftenindefianceofnormalusage.可；Descriptivism：（描写主义）thepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.可；Nativism:（天生论）philosophicalandpsychologicalpositionwhichholdsthatcognitivedevelopmentofhumansarisesfrom“innateideas”.Thenativistpositionhasbeenusedtoexplainhowchildrenareabletolearnlanguageandcontrastswiththebeliefthatallhumanknowledgecomesfromexperience（empiricism）.可；Mentalism:（心智说）psychologicalandphilosophicalconceptpickedupanddevelopedbyChomsky（1965）,whichattemptstodescribetheinternal（innate）languagemechanismthatprovidesthebasisforthecreativeaspectoflanguagedevelopmentanduse.寸；Dualism:（二元论）aphilosophicalsystemthatrecognizestwoultimateand

independentprinciplesintheschemeofthings,suchasmindandmatter.Monism:（一元论）ageneralnameforthosephilosophicaltheorieswhichdenythedualityofmatterandmind.可；UniversalGrammar（UG）:（普通语法）由0geneticallyendowedinformationconsistingofprinciplesandparametersthatenablethechildtodeduceagrammarfromtheprimarylinguisticdata.LanLanguagecompetence:（语言能力）knowledgeoflanguage;thelinguisticcapacityofafluentspeakerofalanguage.二「Parameter:（参数）adimensionofgrammaticalvariationbetweendifferentlanguagesordifferentvarietiesofthesamelanguage.可；Empiricism:（经验论）philosophicalandpsychologicalpositionwhichholdsthatthepsychologicaldevelopmentofhumansariseprimarilyfromexperienceandlearning.Connectionism:（连通主义）atheoryofcognitionwhichdrawsinspirationfromthewaythebillionsofneuronsinthebrainareinterconnectedincomplexwaystoproduceanetworkofassociations.Itholdsthatthecomplexityoflanguageemergesfromassociativelearningprocessesbeingexposedtoamassiveandcomplexenvironment.Chapter2口Speculations:originoflanguagePlato legislatorHerder godUniversalharmonyisembracedasthefoundationofmodernlinguisticsasascience.Galileanthesis natureisperfect④Observation④ResearchEveryperson’slexicalknowledgeofhisfirstlanguageistacitandnatural,withatendencytoinfluence,oftenunknowingly,hissecondlanguagelearning.Thisinfluenceiscalledtransfer.:不Threeadequacies:ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacy（providingadescriptivelyadequategrammarforeverynaturallanguage,anddoessointermsofmaximallyconstrainedsetofuniversalprincipleswhichrepresentpsychologicallyplausiblenaturalprinciplesofmentalcomputation.）匚TestingAtheoryinsciencemustnotbepurespeculationbuttestableatobservational,descriptive,andexplanatorylevels.宣Sciencetellsusthatnatureisaphysicalcontinuum连续体，whichdoesnotbreakitselfintophysics,chemistry,psychology,linguistics•…；thesedisciplines学科arenotfactsbutourdecisions.GlossaryL1:（第一语言）aperson,sfirstlanguage中;L2:（第二语言）aperson,ssecondlanguage.Tobemorespecific,onecouldrefertoaperson’sL3,L4,andsoon.However,thegeneraltermL2isfrequentlyusedtorefertoanylanguagelearningorusedafterthefirstlanguagehasbeenlearned.可；Fossilization:（僵化）incompleteL2acquisitionfeaturedbythefactthatprogressinacertainaspectofthetargetlanguagestopsandthelearner’slanguagebecomesfixedatanintermediatestate.Itcantakeanumberofforms,suchasfossilizedaccentorsyntax.Fossilizationcanbeapermanentfeatureofthelearner’slanguage.Chapter3phonetics④Phonetics:thescienceofspeechsounds.Itaimstoprovidethesetoffeaturesorpropertiesthatcanbeusedtodescribeanddistinguishallthesoundsusedinhumanlanguage.Inaccordancewiththethreephasesjustmentioned,phoneticsisdividedintothreesub-fields.Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学studiesspeechproductionbythespeechorgans;Acousticphonetics声学语音学studiesphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学studiestheperceptionofspeechsoundsinthehumanauditoryandcognitivesystem.匚IPA:InternationalPhoneticAlphabetThedesignprinciplesofIPAwerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.:士A“sound"peoplesaytheyproduceisactuallyacombinationofsoundscalledasyllable,whichisoftenrelatedtoachestpulse.(syllable>=sound)Thepropertiesoftheseseparatesounds,orsegmentsinphonetician’sjargon,canbedescribedinseveraldimensions,theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation.Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointinthevocaltractatwhichthemainclosureornarrowingismadesoastomodifytheflowofairfromthechesttothemouthinproducingasound.Themannerofarticulationreferstothetypeofconstriction收缩ormovementthatoccursatanyplaceofarticulation.:士ArticulationTheproductionofdifferentspeechsoundsthroughtheuseoftheseorgansisknownasarticulation.Speechorgans:thevocalcordsG带)thelungsthewindpipe(trachea)thepharynx(咽)thenosethemouthAmainsourceofvibrationisprovidedbythevocalcords.Thevibrationofthevocalcordsalsogivesuspitch.:士ConsonantsConsonantsaresoundsmadebyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingfromwhichaircannotescapewithoutproducingaudible什匕甘0摩擦Tworeferencepointsareinvolvedindefiningconsonantalplacesofarticulation.Oneistheactivearticulatorwhichmoves;theotheristhepassivearticulatorwithwhichtheactiveonemakescontact.Classifiedaccordingtotheplacesofarticulation:elevenpossibleplacesofarticulationforconsonantsBilabial双唇音，formedbybringingthelipstogether,e.g.[p],[m].Herethefunctionoflipsissomewhatcomplicated:theybothcanberegardedastheactiveandpassivearticulatorssimultaneously.Labio-dental唇齿音,formedbythelowerlipagainsttheupperteeth,e.g.[f].Dental齿音,formedbyplacingthetipofthetongueagainsttheupperteeth,e.g.[6].Alveolar齿龈音，formedbyplacingthetiporbladeofthetongueagainstthealveolarridge,e.g.[t].Palatal腭音，formedbythefrontofthetongueagainstthehardpalate,namely,theroofofthemouth,e.g.[j].Palato-alveolar腭龈音，formedmidwaybetweentheplacesofarticulationforpalatalsandalveolars:theblade(andsometimesthetip)ofthetonguearticulateswiththealveolarridge,withasimultaneousraisingofthefrontofthetonguetowardsthehardpalate,e.g.[J].Velar软腭音，formedbythebackofthetongueagainstthesoftpalate,e.g.[k].Glottal声门音,formedbythevocalcordscomingtogethertocauseaclosureorfriction,e.g.[h].Retrofle卷舌音，formedwhentheapexofthetongueiscurledbackinthedirectionofthehardpalate,asheardinmanyIndianEnglishaccents.Uvular小舌音，formedbythebackofthetongueagainsttheuvula,asheardinsomeaccentsofFrench.Pharyngeal咽音，formedinthepharynx,thepartofthethroatabovethelarynx.Specifically,thefrontwallofthepharynxarticulateswiththebackwall,asheardinArabic.ClassifiedaccordingtothemannerofarticulationThefirstfactoristhedegreeoftheconstrictionofairflow(气流的阻塞).AtleastsixmainclassescanbedistinguishedinEnglish.Plosive爆破音，formedbycompletelyclosingtheairpassageandsuddenlyremovingtheobstacle,sothattheairescapesmakinganexplosivesound,e.g.[p],[d].Itbelongstoabroadercategorycalled“stop”whichincludesclosuresproducedbyairstreamsnotfromthelungs,asencounteredinsomesouthernAfricanlanguages.Nasal鼻音,formedwiththesoftpalatelowered,thusallowingairtoresonateinthenose,e.g.[m].Affricate塞擦音，aconsonantwhichstartsasaplosive,butinsteadofendingwithplosion,endswithafricativemadeinthesameplace,e.g.[tf].Liquid流音，formedbysomeobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth,whichseemsnotenoughtocauseanyrealconstrictionorfriction,e.g.[l],[r].[l]iscalledalateralliquid,becauseinmakingit,anobstacleisplacedinthemiddleofthemouth,leavingtheairfreetoescapeatoneorbothsides.Fricative擦音,formedbyanarrowingoftheairpassageatsomepointsothattheairinescapingmakesaudiblefrication.e.g.[f],[z].Somefricativesarealsocalledsibilants齿擦音，whicharemadewithagroove-likestructureinthefrontpartofthetongue,producingakindofhissingsound,e.g.[s],[f].Glide滑音，sometimescalledsemi-vowelbecauseitistypicallyproducedwiththetonguemoving,or“gliding,toorfromthepositionofanearbyvowel,e.g.[h],[w].Thesecondfactorisvoicing(浊音).Voiceiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.Thethirdfactorisaspiration(送气音).Thisisthesoundofairrushingthroughthevocaltract,usuallyfoundafterthereleaseofplosiveconsonantsinsomesituation.④VowelsVowelsaresoundsinwhichthereisnoobstructiontotheflowofairasitpassesfromthelarynxtothelips.Differentvowelsresultfromchangingtheshapeofthemouth;allofthemarevoicedcontinuoussounds.Thequalitiesofvowelsdependuponthepositionsofthetongueandlips.[i:]closevowels,[a:]openvowels,[e]semi-closedvowels,[o:]semi-openvowelsVowelqualityisalsolargelydependentontheshapeofthelips.Fourroundedvowels:[u:][u][o:][o],theyareallbackvowels.[a:]istheonlyEnglishbackvowelthatoccurswithoutliprounding.Thereisanotherinterestingrule:allthelongvowels(e.g.[i:][u:])aretensevowels紧元音，andalltheshortvowels([i][u])arelaxvowels松元音.Everyvowelconstitutesasinglesyllable.Thevowelcanbeamonophthong,adiphthong,orevenatriphthongthatcontainsthreedistinctivequalities,e.g.[ai].However,noteverysyllablecontainsavowel.Thesecondsyllableofthewordlittle[litl]hasnovowelaftertheplosive[t]butaliquid[l].④PhonemesPhonemeshavenomeaningofthemselves,buttheyarethesmallestlinguisticunit,whosechangewillleadtothechangeofmeaning.Aphonemeisdefinedasthesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.(//)④AllophoneAllophoneisthephoneticvariantofaphoneme,whichcanbesubstitutedofanotherwithoutbringaboutachangeofmeaning.([])ComplementarydistributionandfreevariationAphoneticproperty特性，特质thatdistinguishesphonemesfromoneanotheriscalledadistinctivefeature.④PhonologyandphoneticsPhoneticsismorespecificallythestudyofhowspeechsoundsareproduced,whattheirphysicalpropertiesare,andhowtheyareinterpreted.(how)Phonologyisadescriptionofthesoundsofaparticularlanguageandtherulesgoverningthedistributionofthosesounds.Furthermore,phonologyisalsoconcernedwiththeuniversalpropertiesofnaturallanguagesoundsystemsandaimsatrevealingthegeneralprinciplesofthesoundpatternsofalllanguages.(what):士StressandpitchPitchistheauditorysensationoftheheightofasound.Therearetwowaysinwhichlanguagesmakeuseofpitchvariationsinspeech.InlanguagessuchasEnglish,French,andGerman,regularsequencesofdifferentpitchescharacterizestretchesofspeechbetweenpausesandareknowncollectivelyasintonation.Thedifferencesofintonationmaycorrelatewithdifferenttypesofutterances.InlanguagessuchasChinese,Vietnamese,Thai,andZulu,pitchdifferenceshelptodistinguishonewordfromanotherandmaybetheonlydifferentiatingfeaturebetweentwoormorewordswhosecompositionisthesameintermsofconsonantsandvowels.Pitchdifferencesusedinthesewaysarecalledtonesandtheselanguagesarecalledtonelanguages.Stress,pitch,toneandintonationarealsocalledsuprasegmentals超切分音位becausetheyrelatetoaspectsofpronunciationthatgobeyondtheproductionofindividualsegments.GlossaryPhonetics:（语音学）thestudyofspeechsounds;howtheyareproducedinthevocaltract（articulatoryphonetic发音语音学），theirphysicalproperties（acousticphonetics声学语音学），andhowtheyareperceived（auditoryphonetics听觉语音学）.可；Phonology:（音系学）thestudyofthesoundsystemofalanguage;howtheparticularsoundscontrastineachlanguagetoformanintegratedsystemforencodinginformationandhowsuchsystemsdifferfromonelanguagetoanother.寸；Vocalfolds:（声带）alsovocalcords/lips/bands.Twomuscularfoldsinthelarynx（＜）thatvibrateasasourceofsounds.Vocaltract:（声道）theconnectedpassagesinsidetheheadwhichformthesystemusedtoproducespeech.Itstartsatthelarynxandincludesthepharynx,themouthandthenasalcavity.GiGlottis:（声门）theaperturebetweenthevocalfolds.Larynx:（喉头）thepartofthetracheacontainingthevocalfolds.寸，Palate:（硬腭）alsoknownasthe“hardpalate”orthe“roofofthemouth”;theuppersurfaceofthemouthwherethereisbonebeneaththeskin.Softpalate:（软腭）alsovelum.Theflapofsofttissuewhichformsthecontinuationofthepalateatthebackofthemouth,andmaybeloweredtopermitnasalization.寸；Trachea:（气管）the“windpipd'passesupfromthelungstothevocaltractbeginningwiththelarynx.Uvula:（小舌）thesmalllobehangingfromthebottomofthesoftpalate.Aspiration:（送气音）apuffofairthatfollowsthereleaseofaconsonantwhenthereisadelayintheonsetofvoicing.Itissymbolizedbyasuperscripth（e.g.,［ph］）可；Phoneme:（音素，音位）thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.Minimalpair:（最小语对）twowordsinalanguagethatdifferonlybyasingledistinctivesound（onephoneme）inthesamepositionandhavedifferentmeanings,e.g.,pinandbin.可；Allophone:（音位变体）oneofasetofnondistinctiverealizationsofthesamephoneme.（［］）Complementarydistribution:（互补分布）theoccurrenceofsoundsinlanguagesuchthattheyareneverfoundinthesamephoneticenvironment.Soundsthatareincomplementarydistributionareallophonesofthesamephoneme.寸；Freevariation:（自由变异）termusedtorefertotwosoundsthatoccurinoverlappingenvironmentsbutcausenodistinctioninthemeaningoftheirrespectivewords.Distinctivefeature:（区别性特征）aparticularcharacteristicwhichdistinguishesonedistinctivesoundunitofalanguagefromanotheroronegroupofsoundsfromanothergroup.Forexample,intheEnglishsoundsystem,onedistinctivefeaturewhichdistinguishesthe/p/inpinfromthe/b/inbinisVOICE.Stress:（重音）theincreaseddurationandloudnessofasyllablecomparedtoothersyllablesinthesameword.寸；Pitch:（音高）theauditorysensationoftheheightofasound.中；Tone:（声调）thedistinctivepitchlevelofasyllable.Suprasegmental:（超切分音位）avocaleffectextendingovermorethanonesegment,e.g.,tone,length,andstress.可；InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）:（国际音标）asystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheinternationalphoneticassociation.Chapter4morphology在Wordsarenotthesmallestunitofmeaning.Theyarecomposedofsmallerunitsofmeaning,calledmorphemes.Morphemesaretheminimallanguageunits.三Morphologydealswithwordstructure.Freemorphemes—morphemesthatcanstandaloneasaword.Manywordsarethemselvesmorphemes,suchasbigandbook.Theycannotbebrokenintosmallerunitsthatinthemselvescarrymeaning.Manyotherwordsarecreatedbyjoiningtogethertwomorphemes,e.g.blackboard,inwhichthetwomorphemesblackandboardcanberecognizedasmeaningfulwordsbythemselves.Boundmorpheme,whichoccursonlywhenattachedtoanothermorpheme,suchas-lyinhappilyandun-inunhappy.Suchboundmorphemesarecalledaffixes,includingtheprefixesandthesuffixes.Thefunctionofanaffixcanbederivational派生的，衍生的orinflectional屈折的.Aderivationalmorphemeisonethatisaddedtoaroottoformanewwordthatdiffers,usually,initspart-of-speech词性classification.Forexample,whenthesuffix-nessisaddedtotheadjectivehappy,thenounhappinessisformed.Prefixesasderivationalmorphemesusuallychangethebasicmeaningofawordbutdonotchangeitspart-of-speechclassification(.即系本来系动词就系动词)InfixAninflectionalmorphemeindicatescertaingrammaticalpropertiesassociatedwithnounsandverbs,suchasgender,number,case,andtense.UnlikehighlyinflectedlanguagessuchasLatin,Englishhasveryfewinflectionalmorphemes.InEnglish,theinflectionalmorphemesareallsuffixes.Thesuffix-s,whichindicatespluralityinnounsaswellasthethird-personsingularinverbs,isaninflectionalmorpheme;thepasttensesuffix-ed,whichisaddedtoverbs,isanother.AccordingtoWilhelmvonHumboldt,languagesoftheworldcanbeclassifiedmorphologicallyintothreetypes:isolating,inflecting,andagglutinating.Anisolatinglanguageisalsocalledananalyticlanguageorrootlanguage,inwhichallthewordsareinvariable.Chinese,VietnameseandSamoanaretypicalcases.Aninflectinglanguageisalsocalledasyntheticlanguageorfusionallanguage,inwhichgrammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords—typicallybytheuseofinflectionalendingswhichexpressseveralgrammaticalmeaningsatonce.Latin,Greek,andArabicareclearcases.Anagglutinatinglanguageisalsocalledagglutinativelanguage,inwhichawordtypicallyconsistsofaneatlinearsequenceofmorphemes,allclearlyrecognizable.Turkish,Finnish,Japanese,andSwahiliareusualcases.④MorphemesinChineseChineseisregardedasatypicalanalyticallanguageandalsohassomeinflectionalandagglutinatingstructures.MostofChinesefreemorphemesaremonosyllabicbecauseChineseisatonelanguage.:士CompoundCompoundingisaprocessthatformsnewwordsnotbymeansofaffixesbutfromtwoormoreindependentwords.Compoundsaredifferentfromphrasesinthattheysymbolizeanintegrated整体的concept.Therearedifferentsemanticrelationshipswithinthemorphemescomprisingacompound.④IdiomaticpowerIdiomatic惯用的，成语的expressions:metaphoric（e.g.I'mreallytiedup无法分身.），allusive（e.g.therulingpartymetitsWaterloo毁灭性的打击inthenewelection.）,amajorityareinstitutionalized.GlossaryMorpheme:（词素）smallestlinguisticunitthatcanhaveameaningorgrammaticalfunction.寸；Morphology:（形态学）thestudyofword-makingandword-marking.Ontheonehand,morphologyexaminesmeaningrelationshipsbetweenwordsandthewaysinwhichtheseconnectionsareindicated.Ontheother,morphologylooksathowgrammaticalrelationshipsbetweenwordsaremarked.（G.Tserdanelis&W.Wong:Languagefiles）二「Alsothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andoftherulesbywhichwordsareformed,iscalledmorphology.（V.Fromkin&R.Roman:AnIntroductiontoLanguage）可；Freemorphemes:（自由词素）morphemesthatcanstandaloneasaword.Boundmorphemes:（粘着词素）morphemethatalwaysattachestoothermorphemes,neverexistingasaworditself.可；Affix:（词缀）aboundmorphemethatchangesthemeaningorsyntacticfunctionofthewordstowhichitattaches.Prefixes,infixesandsuffixesarethethreetypesofaffixes.Prefix:（前缀）anaffixthatattachestothebeginningofastem.Suffix:（后缀）anaffixthatattachestotheendofastem可；Infix:（中缀）atypeofboundmorphemethatisinsertedintotheroot.寸；Derivationalmorpheme:（派生词素）morphemesthatchangethemeaningorlexicalcategoryofthewordstowhichtheyattach.Inflectionalmorphemes:（屈折词素）morphemesthatserveapurelygrammaticalfunction,nevercreatinganewwordbutonlyadifferentformofsameword.寸；Isolatinglanguage:（孤立语）alsoanalyticlanguage.Atypeoflanguageinwhichwordsconsistmainlyofonemorphemeandsentencesarecomposedofsequencesofthesefreemorphemes.Grammaticalrelationshipsareoftenindicatedbywordorder.ExamplesareChineseandVietnamese.可；Inflectinglanguage:屈折语）alsofusionallanguage.Alanguageinwhichtheformofawordchangestoshowachangeinmeaningorgrammaticalfunction.寸'Agglutinatinglanguage：（粘着语）alanguageinwhichvariousaffixesmaybeaddedtothestemofawordtoaddtoitsmeaningortoshowitsgrammaticalfunction.Compound:（复合词）awordthatisformedbycombiningtwoormorewords.寸；Idioms:（习语）anexpressionwhichfunctionsasasingleunitandwhosemeaningcannotbeworkedoutfromitsseparateparts.二「Collocation:（搭配）thewayinwhichwordsareusedtogetherregularly.Stem:（词干）thepartofawordthatservesasabaseforformingnewwordsbytheadditionofaffixes.Forexample,workisthestemofworker;workeristhestemofworkers.可；Tonelanguage:（声调语言）alanguageinwhichwordmeaningsorgrammaticalcontrastsareconveyedbyvariationsintone.Syntheticlanguages:（综合语）languageinwhichaffixesareattachedtoothermorphemes,sothatawordmaybemadeupofseveralmeaningfulelementsincludinginflectinglanguagesandagglutinatinglanguages.Chapter5syntax在Syntactictreeofasentencerevealsthattherelationshipbetweenthephrasesofasentenceisnotlinearbuthierarchical.Familytreesequence次序istop-down;syntactictreesequenceisbottom-up.Thebottom-upprocessinsentenceproductioniscalledmerging合并.S=NP+VP(V+NP)ThetwowordsoftheVPplaydifferentroles headandcomplement.Aheadofaphraseisthekeywordwhichdeterminesthepropertiesofthephrase.口TheI(inflectionalmorpheme)playsanessentialroleinmerginganNPandaVPintoasentence.SfP=NP+VP(V+NP)④Twogroupsofsyntacticalcategories:lexicalcategoriesandfunctionalcategories.Lexicalcategories:allthecontentwords,namelynouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsFunctionalcategory:anywordormorphemewhichhasnodescriptivecontentandwhichservesanessentiallygrammaticalfunctionbelongstoa.Afunctionalcategoryplaysarolelikeglueincombiningcontentwordsintophrasesandphrasesintoasentence.口XPcanbedefinedasthemaximalprojectionheadedbyX,andXitself,i.e.thehead,astheminimalprojection.IisafunctionalcategorydevisedbyChomskywhosemembersincludenotonlyinflectionalmorphemesbutalsofiniteauxiliaries限定助动词(whichareinflectedfortense/agreement),andtheinfinitivalparticleto.④CPreferstocomplementizerphraseandcanbefoundin