英语语言学教程胡壮麟版之欧阳德创编

2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）时间：2021.03.07创作：欧阳德Chapterone.InvitationtoLinguistic.Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre"inFrench,“shu”inChinese.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages.Writing2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07systemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.DesignFeaturesofLanguage.“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeabilityArbitrariness:By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Duality:Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures(phonologicalandgrammatical),unitsoftheprimarylevelbeingcomposedofelementsofthesecondaryleveland2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07eachlevelhavingitsownprinciplesoforganization.Productivity:Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Thepropertythatenablesnativespeakerstoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofutterances,includingutterancesthattheyhaveneverpreviouslyencountered.Displacement:“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07Culturaltransmission:Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Interchangeability: Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.FunctionsofLanguage.Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.Phaticfunction:The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Directivefunction:The“directive2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07function”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Informativefunction:Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabeledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).Interrogativefunction:Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.Expressivefunction:The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Evocativefunction:The“evocative2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07function”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Performativefunction:Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Whatislinguistic?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereupon all human languages areconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.Mainbranchesoflinguistics.Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,sociolinguistics,applied2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07linguistics,psycholinguisticsetc.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistic.⑴synchronicstudyvs.diachronicstudyThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Speechvs.writingSpeechisprimary,becauseitexistedlongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07Descriptivevs.prescriptiveAlinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.(4).languevs.paroleF.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematic2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07investigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,petencevs.performanceAccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthan2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07performance..linguisticpotentialvs.linguisticbehaviorThesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential).Chapter2Phonetics1.Whatisphonetics?"Phonetics"isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2.TheIPATheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwas2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07developedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.PlaceofarticulationItreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.MannerofarticulationThe“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Phonology“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.Narrowtranscriptionandbroadtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadtranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythose2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07soundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.PhonePhonemeAllophoneA“phone"isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics".Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme"isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones",i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]sintheabovewordsistheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.Minimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”，“pill”and“till”，“till”and“dill”，“till”and“kill”，etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknow2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07whatEnglishphonemesare.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage.FreevariationIftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.ComplementarydistributionWhentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Assimilationrule.The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegment2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07toanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.DeletionruleThe“deletionrule”telluswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Suprasegmentalphonologyandsuprasegmentalfeatures“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,lengthandpitch,stress,intonation.Chapter3.MorphologyMorphemeandMorphologyThe“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthat2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07studiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.TypesofMorphemes.⑴freemorphemeandboundmorphemeA“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchasibed”,“tree”，etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes)..root;affix;stemA“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthepartofthewordthatisleftwhenallthe2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07affixesareremoved.“Affixes”isacollectivetermforthetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem),soaffixisnaturallybound.(prefix,suffix,infix)A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded..Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix.Inflectionalaffixes:donotchangethewordclass,butonlyaddedaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.Derivationalaffixes:oftenchangethelexicalmeaningandwordclass.Inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,andderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes(sub-,de-)orsuffixes(-er,-able).Inflection“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethe2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07grammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.4.WordformationInitsrestrictedsense,referstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefuturesubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andthederivationaltype.LexicalchangelexicalchangepropeK特有词汇变化)InventionBlending:blendingisrelativecomplexfromofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.Abbreviation:anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,theinitialpart,orboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly.Acronym:acronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhaveaheavilymodifiedheadword.2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07Back-formation:itreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.Analogicalcreation:itcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftheforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.Borrowing:loanwords:theborrowingofloanwordsisaprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecauses,tothephonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.loanblend:itisaprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandtheresthasbeenborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.loanshift:itisaprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,andtheformisnative.loantranslation:aspecialtypeofborrowing,inwhicheachmorphemeorwordistranslatedintheequivalentmorphemeorwordinanother2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07language..Morpho-syntacticalchange(形态句法变化)A.morphologicalchange:thewordshavechangedtheirformsB.syntacticalchange.Semanticchange(语义变化)broading:aprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsoriginallyspecificsensetoarelativegeneralone.narrowing:itreferstoaprocessinwhichtheoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense.meaningshift:thechangeofmeaninghasnothingtodowithgeneralizationorrestriction.forketymology:itreferstoachangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermonfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous..Phologicalchange(音位变化)Referstochangesinsoundleadingtochangein2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07form.a.loss（语音的脱落）b.addition（语音的增加）c.metathesis（换位）d.assimilation（同化）（5）.Orthographicchange（书写法变化）ChapterFour.SyntaxSyntax.“Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensententialelements.Sentence.L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,anditisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform.Syntacticrelations.2021.03.07欧阳德创编

2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07“Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences;hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:positionalrelations,relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence.a.c.“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”.a.c.“Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.“Relationsofco-occurrence”,onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmay2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07permitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations.GrammaticalconstructionGrammaticalconstruction:itcanbeusedtomeananysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctioninalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningorusetheconstructcontains.ICanalysisandimmediateconstituents.“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutiscalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutis2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07called“ultimateconstituents”.Endocentricandexocentricconstructions“Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”,oppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole;thatistosay,thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.6.Coordinationandsubordination.6.2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07Theyaretwomaintypesofendocentricconstruction.CoordinationisacommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoofmorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchas“and”，“but”and“or”.Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.(threebasictypesofsubordinationclause:complementclause,adjunctclause,relationclause.)Syntacticfunction⑴Subject:“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase.InEnglish,thesubjectofasentenceisoftensaidtobethedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonorthingacteduponbythedoer.Grammaticalsubject:itreferstoanounwhich2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07canestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest,e.g.,“Heisagoodcook,(isn’the?).”Logicalsubject:theoriginalobjectnounphraseoccupiesthegrammaticalspacebeforeaverb,thespacethatasubjectnormallyoccupies,thecoresubject,nowtheobjectofapreposition,iscalledthelogicalsubject.).Predicate:A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentence“Themonkeyisjumping”,“isjumping”isthepredicate.)Object:“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanactionanditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds:directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages,anobjectismarkedbycaselabels:the“accusativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”forindirectto2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07wordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).e.g.,inthesentence“Johnkissedme"，“me"istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation.CategoryTheterm“category"insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc.⑴Number:“Number"isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalso2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07reflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.(2)Gender:"Gender"displayssuchcontrastsas“masculine”,“feminine”,"neuter”，or“animate"and"inanimate”,etc.,fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities,wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).⑶Case:“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.⑷Agreement(orConcord):“Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationship2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07withoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories,e.g.,“manruns”，“menrun”.SyntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelationSyntagmaticrelation:itisarelationbetweenoneitemandotherinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent,suchastherelationbetween“weather”andtheothersinthefollowingsentence“Iftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.”Paradigmaticrelation:itisalsocalledAssociative,arelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.Itisalsoknownastheverticalrelationorchoicerelation.Phrase;clauseandsentence.A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”.2021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.072021.03.07欧阳德创编2021.03.07Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.,“thethreetallestgirls”(nominalphrase)