玫瑰战争对英国社会发展的意义

TheImpactoftheWarsoftheRosesonEnglishSocialDevelopmentAbstract:TheWarsoftheRoseswereaseriesofcivilwarsfoughtinmedievalEnglandfrom1455to1485betweenHouseofLancasterandHouseofYork.Therewerethreeperiodsofsustainedconflict:1455-1461,1469-1471,and1483-1487.ThenameoftheWarsoftheRoseswasbasedonthebadgesusedbythetwosides,theredrosefortheLancastriansandthewhiterosefortheYorkists.Afterthewarthearistocracysuffereddreadfully,andTudordynastywasfounded.Basedonthehistoricalfacts,thispaperistodiscussthecausesoftheWarsoftheRoses,theimpactofthiswaronthesocialdevelopmentofEnglandandalsoonthepostwarEnglandasawhole.KeyWords:TheWarsoftheRoses;aristocracy;socialdevelopment玫瑰战争对英国社会发展的意义摘要：玫瑰战争是中世纪英格兰的一系列围绕约克和兰开斯特两大王族的内战。这场战争分为1455-1461,1464-1471和1485-1487三个阶段。这场战争得名于两大家族的族徽，既红色玫瑰的兰开斯特王族和白色玫瑰的约克家族。这场战争结束后，英格兰的贵族受到了极为严重的削弱，都铎王朝亦从此建立。本文旨在通过对相关历史史实的讨论,试图进一步探讨玫瑰战争爆发的缘由和这场战争对当时英格兰社会发展的意义以及日后对英格兰造成的影响。关键词：玫瑰战争;贵族统治；社会发展CONTENTSTOC\o"1-3"\h\zIntroduction 11.BackgroundandOriginsoftheWarsoftheRoses….21.1BackgroundoftheWarsoftheRoses 21.1.1TheAntebellumConditionoftheEngland……….21.1.2HouseofLancaster 21.1.3HouseofYork 21.2OriginsoftheWarsoftheRoses 21.2.1TheHistoricalAspects 21.2.2ThePoliticalAspects 32.TheCourseoftheWarsoftheRoses 42.1TheInitialPhaseoftheWars:1455-1461………..42.2TheSecondPhaseoftheWars:1464-1471………62.3TheThirdPhaseoftheWars:1485-1487…………123.TheImpactoftheWarsonEnglishSocialDevelopment………….133.1TheImpactoftheWarsonpoliticalsystem…………...133.1.1TheCollapseofAristocracy……………..133.1.2TheRiseofClassofSquireandBourgeois…………………….143.1.3TheKingshipoftheTudorDynasty…………143.2TheImpactoftheWarsonEconomicSystem……………..143.2.1TheCommercialism…………………………...143.2.2TheBudoftheCapitalism………………...143.3TheImpactoftheWarsontheSocialIdeas……………154.Conclusion……………15Bibliography………………...…………..17IntroductionInrecentyears,manyresearcheshavebeendoneandpublishedontheMiddleAgesofWesternEurope,whichcoveredalmosteveryaspectthatpeoplecouldconceiveof.TherealsohavebeensomeworksontheWarsoftheRosesinmedievalEngland,togetherwithitsfurtherimpactonEnglishsocietyinthepaststudies.TheWarsoftheRoses(1455–1487)wereaseriesofcivilwarsfoughtoverthethroneofEnglandbetweenadherentsofHouseofLancasterandHouseofYork.BothhouseswerebranchesofthePlantagenetroyalhouse,tracingtheirdescentfromKingEdwardIII.Thename"WarsoftheRoses"wasnotusedduringthetimeofthewars,buthaditsoriginsinthebadgesassociatedwiththetworoyalhouses,theRedRoseofLancasterandtheWhiteRoseofYork.Thetermitselfcameintocommonuseonlyinthenineteenthcentury,afterthepublicationofAnneofGeiersteinbySirWalterScott.ScottbasedthenameonafictionalsceneinShakespeare'splayHenryVIPart1,wheretheopposingsidespickdifferent-coloredrosesattheTempleTheWarsoftheRosesconsistedofthreeperiodsofsustainedconflict:1459-61,1469-71,and1483-87.TheWarswerefoughtlargelybythelandedaristocracyandarmiesoffeudalretainers.Supportforeachhouselargelydependedupondynasticmarriageswiththenobility,feudaltitles,andtenures.Itissometimesdifficulttofollowtheshiftsofpowerandallegianceasnoblesacquiredorlosttitlesthroughmarriage,confiscationorattainder.ThewarscausedthecollapseofthePlantagenetdynastyanditsreplacementwiththenewTudor.AndwiththeheavycasualtiesamongthenobilitycoupledwiththeeffectsoftheBlackDeath,thewarsarethoughttohaveusheredinaperiodofgreatsocialupheavalinfeudalEngland,includingaweakeningofthefeudalpowerofthenoblesandacorrespondingstrengtheningofthemerchantclasses,andthegrowthofastrong,centralizedmonarchyundertheTudors.Nevertheless,itisbelievedthattherearestillmanyissuesthatmaybeworthstudyingbecausethewarshappenedduringaverycolorfulperiodwhichsawthearistocracy’scollapseandkingship’srising,.SomeonealsoseemeditasthesymboloftheendofthemedievalperiodinEnglandandthemovementtowardstheRenaissance.BackgroundandOriginoftheWarsoftheRoses1.1TheAntebellumConditionoftheEnglandBeforetheWarsoftheRosesbrokeout,thearmisticeoftheotherwarhadnotbeencarriedoutlongago.TheHundredYears'WarbetweenEnglandandFrancewhichlasted116yearsfrom1337to1453,andtheEnglish,afterthewar,hadseizednothingbutwithdrawingbacktotheislands.Asaresult,HenryVI’skingshipsufferedfromthefailureoftheHundredYears’War,andpushedhimselftowardspeople’ssuspicion,andaristocrat’sintimidationwhohadexpandedtheirprivatearmyduringthewar.1.1.2HouseofLancasterHouseofLancasterwasabranchoftheEnglishroyalHouseofPlantagenet,Englishkings.ItwasoneoftheopposingfactionsinvolvedintheWarsoftheRoses,anintermittentcivilwarwhichaffectedEnglandandWalesduringthe15thcentury.TheHouseisnamedLancaster,becauseitsmemberswerealldescendedfromEdwardIII'ssonJohnofGaunt,1stDukeofLancaster;theirsymbolwasaRedRose.1.1.3HouseofYorkHouseofYorkwasalsoabranchoftheEnglishroyalHouseofPlantagenet,threeofwhombecameEnglishkingsinthelate15thcentury.TheHouseofYorkwasdescendedfromEdmundofLangley,1stDukeofYork-thefourthsonofEdwardIII.TheirsymbolwasaWhiteRose.1.2OriginsoftheWarsoftheRosesOntheoriginsofthewars,historianstendtodotheirstudiesfromhistoricalandpoliticalaspects.1.2.1TheHistoricalAspectsSomehistorianstendtodefineitasacivilwar.Forexample,TerenceWisesaidinherworkTheWarsoftheRoses:Inmyopinion,acivilwarisoneinwhichmenfightandkilltheircountrymen,andinthisrespecttheWarsoftheRosesmightproperlybecalledacivilwar.Furthermore,someoftheresearchersbelievethatitwasnotasimplecivilwar.OnTheWarsoftheRoses1455-1485,MichaelHickssaid:theWarsoftheRoseswereaperiodofmajorcrisisinEnglishpoliticsandinthelivesoftheEnglishlandowningclasses.TheantagonismbetweenthetwohousesstartedwiththeoverthrowofKingRichardIIbyhiscousin,HenryBolingbroke,DukeofLancaster,in1399.AsanissueofEdwardIII'sthirdsonJohnofGaunt,Bolingbrokehadaverypoorclaimtothethrone.Accordingtoprecedent,thecrownshouldhavepassedtothemaledescendantsofLionelofAntwerp,DukeofClarence(1338-1368).However,BolingbrokewascrownedasHenryIV.Sohewasseemedasausurper.Howeverhisson,HenryV,wasagreatsoldierandhismilitarysuccessagainstFranceintheHundredYears'Warbolsteredhisenormouspopularity,enablinghimtostrengthentheLancastrianholdonthethrone.InthereignoftheHenryVI,EnglandwasdefeatedbyFrance,andthenthekingcouldnotcontrolthekingdomeverbecauseofthedepressionofpeopleandnobles.Richard,EarlofCambridge,asonofEdmundofLangley,thefifthsonofEdwardIII.Hegrewuptoputforwardhisparents'claimstothethroneasheadoftheHouseofYork,whichbelievedthatithadastrongerclaimtothethronethantheLancastrianHenryVI.Finallythefermentedcomplotinvolvedthemostofthearistocrats.So,thehistoricalaspectwaspresentedasmatterofrealitythatdisplayedadynasticstrugglebetweenthehousesofYorkandLancaster.1.2.2ThePoliticalAspectsIn1453AD,EnglandsufferedfromthefailureoftheHundredYears’War.However,twoyearslater,anotherwar—theWarsoftheRosesbrokeout.MichaelHickssaid:TheyfollowedimmediatelyafterthefinalEnglishdefeatintheHundredYears’War.Historicalrecordshadshownthatafterthewithdraw,theconflictsintheChannelandraidsonthesouthcoastimpededtradeandthreatenedforeigninvasion,coincidingwith‘GreatSlump’roughlyaround1440-1480.Peopleinallwalksoflifewerefeelingthepinch,lookedbacknostalgicallytobettertimesandblamedthegovernment.Ontheotherhand,thefailuremeantEnglishlosttheirlandonmainlandandthecontrolofNetherlandswhichwasoneofthelargestbasesofweaving.Furthermore,moreandmoreprivatearmieswhichwereunderthecontrolofthenobleshadbeenbuilt,andthenoblesdidn’trestrainthemselvesfrombiddingtheirdefiancetothekingship.SothepoliticalaspectoftheWarsoftheRoseswasderivedfromafuse--theHundredYearsWar.Fromthenon,kingshiphadtofacedomesticdepressionfromtheworkingpeopleaswellastheambitiousnobles.2.TheCourseoftheWarsoftheRoses2.1TheInitialPhaseoftheWars:1455-1461Duringthisphase,therewereninebattles:FirstBattleofStAlbans:May22,1455(Yorkistvictory);BattleofBloreHeath:September23,1459(Yorkistvictory);BattleofLudfordBridgeBattleofNorthampton(1460):July10,1460(Yorkistvictory);BattleofWakefield:December30,1460(Lancastrianvictory);BattleofMortimer'sCross:February2,1461(Yorkistvictory);SecondBattleofStAlbans:February22,1461(Lancastrianvictory);BattleofFerrybridge:March28,1461(Indecisive);BattleofTowton:March29,1461(Yorkistvictory).In1455AD,Richard,DukeofYorkledasmallforcetowardLondonandwasmetbyHenry'sforcesatStAlbans,northofLondon,onMay221455.TherelativelysmallFirstBattleofStAlbanswasthefirstopenconflictofthecivilwar.Richard'saimwasostensiblytoremove"pooradvisors"fromKingHenry'sside.TheresultwasaLancastriandefeat.SeveralprominentLancastrianleaders,includingSomersetandNorthumberland,werekilled.Yorkandhisalliesregainedtheirpositionofinfluence,andforawhilebothsidesseemedshockedthatanactualbattlehadbeenfoughtanddidtheirbesttoreconciletheirdifferences.WhenHenrysufferedanotherboutofmentalillness,YorkwasagainappointedProtector,andMargaretwasshuntedaside,chargedwiththeking'scare.AfterthefirstBattleofStAlbans,thecompromiseof1455enjoyedsomesuccess,withYorkremainingthedominantvoiceontheCouncilevenafterHenry'srecovery.Theproblemswhichhadcausedconflictsoonre-emerged,particularlytheissueofwhethertheDukeofYork,orHenryandMargaret'sinfantson,Edward,wouldsucceedtothethrone.Margaretrefusedtoacceptanysolutionthatwoulddisinheritherson,anditbecameclearthatshewouldonlytoleratethesituationforaslongastheDukeofYorkandhisalliesretainedthemilitaryascendancy.In1456,HenrywentonroyalprogressintheMidlands,wheretheKingandQueenwerepopular.MargaretdidnotallowhimtoreturntoLondonwherethemerchantswereangryatthedeclineintradeandwidespreaddisorder.TheKing'scourtsetupatCoventry.Bythen,thenewDukeofSomersetwasemergingasafavouriteoftheroyalcourt,fillinghisfather'sshoes.MargaretalsopersuadedHenrytodismisstheappointmentsYorkhadmadeasProtector,whileYorkhimselfwasmadetoreturntohispostasLieutenantinIreland.Disorderinthecapitalandpiracyonthesouthcoastweregrowing,buttheKingandQueenremainedintentonprotectingtheirownpositions,withtheQueenintroducingconscriptionforthefirsttimeinEngland.Meanwhile,York'sally,Warwick(laterdubbed"TheKingmaker"),wasgrowinginpopularityinLondonasthechampionofthemerchants.FollowingYork'sunauthorizedreturnfromIreland,hostilitiesresumed.OnSeptember23,1459,attheBattleofBloreHeathinStaffordshire,alargeLancastrianarmyfailedtopreventaYorkistforceundertheEarlofSalisburyfrommarchingfromMiddlehamCastleinYorkshiretolinkupwithYorkatLudlowCastle.ShortlyafterwardsthecombinedYorkistarmiesconfrontedthemuchlargerLancastrianforceattheBattleofLudfordBridge.OneofWarwick'slieutenantsdefectedtotheLancastrians,andtheYorkistleadersfled;YorkhimselfbacktoIreland,andEdward,EarlofMarch(York'seldestson,laterEdwardIVofEngland),Salisbury,andWarwicktoCalais.TheLancastrianswerenowbackingintotalcontrol,andSomersetwassentofftobeGovernorofCalais.HisattemptstoevictWarwickwereeasilyrepulsed,andtheYorkistsevenbegantolaunchraidsontheEnglishcoastfromIn1460,WarwickandtheotherslaunchedaninvasionofEngland,andrapidlyestablishedthemselvesinKentandLondon,wheretheyenjoyedwidesupport.Backedbyapapalemissarywhohadtakentheirside,theymarchednorth.HenryledanarmysouthtomeetthemwhileMargaretremainedinthenorthwithPrinceEdward.TheBattleofNorthampton,onJuly101460,proveddisastrousfortheLancastrians.TheYorkistarmyundertheEarlofWarwick,aidedbytreacheryintheLancastrianranks,wasabletocaptureKingHenryandtakehimprisonertoLondon.Asaresult,MargaretinAnjouwasorderedoutofLondonwithPrinceEdward,andtheYorkistarmyundertheEarlofWarwick,aidedbytreacheryintheLancastrianranks,wasabletocaptureKingHenryandtakehimprisonertoLondon.Thenon1461,York'seldestson,coronetedastheEdwardIVofEngland.Yorkdynastybegun.2.2TheSecondPhaseoftheWars:1464-1471Thisphasecanbeseparatedintothreeperiods:theLancastriancounter-attack,YorkisttriumphandResumptionofcrown.Thereweresixbattlesinthisperiod:.BattleofHedgeleyMoor:April25,1464(Yorkistvictory);BattleofHexham:May15,1464(Yorkistvictory);BattleofEdgecoteMoor:July26,1469(Lancastrianvictory);BattleofLose-coatField:March12,1470(Yorkistvictory);BattleofBarnet:April14,1471(Yorkistvictory);BattleofTewkesbury:May4,1471(Yorkistvictory).TheDukeofYorkleftLondonlaterthatyearwiththeEarlofSalisburytoconsolidatehispositioninthenorthagainstMargaret'sarmyreportedtobemassingnearthecityofYork.RichardtookupadefensivepositionatSandalCastlenearWakefieldatChristmas1460.AlthoughMargaret'sarmyoutnumberedRichard'sbymorethantwotoone,onDecember30Yorkorderedhisforcestoleavethecastleandmountanattack.HisarmysufferedadevastatingdefeatattheBattleofWakefield.Richardhimselfwasslaininthebattle,andbothSalisburyandRichard's17-year-oldsecondson,Edmund,EarlofRutland,werecapturedandbeheaded.MargaretorderedtheheadsofallthreeplacedonthegatesofYork.Thisevent,orthelaterdefeatofRichardIII,laterinspiredthemnemonic"RichardofYorkGaveBattleInVain"forthesevencolorsoftherainbow.TheActofAccordandtheeventsofWakefieldleftthe18-year-oldEdward,EarlofMarch,York'seldestson,asDukeofYorkandheirtothethrone.Salisbury'sdeathleftWarwick,hisheir,asthebiggestlandownerinEngland.MargarettraveledtoScotlandtonegotiateforScottishassistance.MaryofGueldres,QueenofScotlandagreedtogiveMargaretanarmyonconditionthatshecedethetownofBerwicktoScotlandandMary'sdaughterbebetrothedtoPrinceEdward.Margaretagreed,althoughshehadnofundstopayherarmyandcouldonlypromisebootyfromtherichesofsouthernEngland,aslongasnolootingtookplacenorthoftheriverTrent.ShetookherarmytoHull,recruitingmoremenasshewent.EdwardofYorkmeanwhile,withanarmyfromthepro-YorkistMarches(theborderareabetweenEnglandandWales),mettheEarlofPembroke'sarmyarrivingfromWales,anddefeatedthemsoundlyattheBattleofMortimer'sCrossinHerefordshire.Heinspiredhismenwitha"vision"ofthreesunsatdawn(aphenomenonknownas"parhelion"),tellingthemthatitwasasignofvictoryandrepresentedthethreesurvivingYorksons;himself,GeorgeandRichard.ThisledtoEdward'slateradoptionofthesignofthesunneinsplendorashispersonalemblem.Margaretwasnowmovingsouth,wreakinghavocassheprogressed,andherarmysupportingitbylootingasitpassedthroughtheprosperoussouthofEngland.InLondon,WarwickusedthisaspropagandatoreinforceYorkistsupportthroughoutthesouth—thetownofCoventryswitchingallegiancetotheYorkists.Warwickfailedtostartrisinganarmysoonenoughand,withoutEdward'sarmytoreinforcehim,wascaughtoff-guardbytheLancastrians'earlyarrivalatStAlbans.AttheSecondBattleofStAlbanstheQueenwontheLancastrians'mostdecisivevictoryyet,andastheYorkistforcesfledtheyleftbehindKingHenry,whowasfoundunharmedunderatree.HenryknightedthirtyLancastriansoldiersimmediatelyafterthebattle.Inanillustrationoftheincreasingbitternessofthewar,QueenMargaretinstructedherseven-year-oldsonEdwardofWestminster,todeterminethemannerofexecutionoftheYorkistknightswhohadbeenchargedwithkeepingHenrysafeandhadstayedathissidethroughoutthebattle.AstheLancastrianarmyadvancedsouthwards,awaveofdreadsweptLondon,whererumorswererifeaboutsavageNorthernersintentonplunderingthecity.ThepeopleofLondonshutthecitygatesandrefusedtosupplyfoodtothequeen'sarmy,whichwaslootingthesurroundingcountiesofHertfordshireandMiddlesex.Meanwhile,EdwardwasadvancingtowardsLondonfromthewestwherehehadjoinedforceswithWarwick.ThiscoincidedwiththenorthwardretreatbythequeentoDunstable,allowingEdwardandWarwicktoenterLondonwiththeirarmy.Theywerewelcomedwithenthusiasm,moneyandsuppliesbythelargelyYorkist-supportingcity.Edwardcouldnolongerclaimsimplytobetryingtowrestthekingfrombadcouncilors.Thishadbecomeabattleforthecrownitself.Edwardnowneededauthority,andthisseemedforthcomingwhentheBishopofLondonaskedthepeopleofLondontheiropinionandtheyrepliedwithshoutsof"KingEdward".ThiswasquicklyconfirmedbyParliamentandEdwardwasunofficiallycrownedinahastilyarrangedceremonyatWestminsterAbbeyamidstmuchjubilation,althoughEdwardvowedhewouldnothaveaformalcoronationuntilHenryandMargaretwereexecutedorexiled.HealsoannouncedthatHenryhadforfeitedhisrighttothecrownbyallowinghisqueentotakeuparmsagainsthisrightfulheirsundertheActofAccord,thoughitwasbynowbecomingwidelyarguedthatEdward'svictorywassimplyarestorationoftherightfulheirtothethrone,whichneitherHenrynorhisLancastrianpredecessorshadbeen.ItwasthisargumentwhichParliamenthadacceptedtheyearbefore.EdwardandWarwickmarchednorth,gatheringalargearmyastheywent,andmetanequallyimpressiveLancastrianarmyatTowton.TheBattleofTowton,nearYork,wasthebiggestbattleoftheWarsoftheRosesthusfar.Bothsidesagreedbeforehandthattheissuewastobesettledthatday,withnoquarteraskedorgiven.Anestimated40,000—80,000mentookpartwithover20,000menbeingkilledduring(andafter)thebattle,anenormousnumberforthetimeandthegreatestrecordedsingleday'slossoflifeonEnglishsoil.Edwardandhisarmywonadecisivevictory,theLancastrianswererouted,withmostoftheirleadersslain.HenryandMargaret,whowerewaitinginYorkwiththeirsonEdward,flednorthwhentheyheardoftheoutcome.ManyofthesurvivingLancastriannoblesnowswitchedallegiancetoKingEdward,andthosewhodidnotweredrivenbacktothenorthernborderareasandafewcastlesinWales.EdwardadvancedtotakeYorkwherehewasconfrontedwiththerottingheadsofhisfather,hisbrotherandSalisbury,whichweresoonreplacedwiththoseofdefeatedLancastrianlordssuchasthenotoriousJohnClifford,9thBarondeCliffordofSkipton-Craven,whowasblamedfortheexecutionofEdward'sbrotherEdmund,EarlofRutland,aftertheBattleofWakefield.HenryandMargaretfledtoScotlandwheretheystayedwiththecourtofJamesIII,implementingtheirearlierpromisetocedeBerwicktoScotlandandleadinganinvasionofCarlislelaterintheyear.Butlackingmoney,theywereeasilyrepulsedbyEdward'smenwhowererootingouttheremainingLancastrianforcesinthenortherncounties.EdwardIV'sofficialcoronationtookplaceinJune1461inLondonwherehereceivedarapturouswelcomefromhissupportersasthenewkingofEngland.Edwardwasabletoruleinrelativepeacefortenyears.IntheNorth,Edwardcouldneverreallyclaimtohavecompletecontroluntil1464,asapartfromrebellions,severalcastleswiththeirLancastriancommandersheldoutforyears.Dunstanburgh,Alnwick(thePercyfamilyseat),andBamburghweresomeofthelasttofall.ThelasttosurrenderwasthemightyfortressofHarlech(Wales)in1468,afteraseven-year-longsiege.ThereweretwofurtherLancastrianrevoltsintheNorthin1464.SeveralLancastriannobles,includingtheDukeofSomerset,whohadapparentlybeenreconciledtoEdward,readilyledtherebellion.ThefirstclashwasattheBattleofHedgeleyMooronApril25andthesecondattheBattleofHexhamonMay15.BothrevoltswereputdownbyWarwick'sbrother,JohnNeville,1stMarquessofMontagu.SomersetwascapturedandexecutedafterthedefeatatHexham.ThedeposedKingHenrywasalsocapturedintheNorthin1465andheldprisonerattheTowerofTheperiod1467–70sawamarkedandrapiddeteriorationintherelationshipbetweenKingEdwardandhisformermentor,thepowerfulRichardNeville,EarlofWarwick—"theKingmaker".Thishadseveralcauses,butstemmedoriginallyfromEdward'sdecisiontomarryElizabethWoodvilleinsecretin1464.Edwardlaterannouncedthenewsofhismarriageasafact,totheconsiderableembarrassmentofWarwick,whohadbeennegotiatingamatchbetweenEdwardandaFrenchbride,convincedashewasoftheneedforanalliancewithFrance.ThisembarrassmentturnedtobitternesswhentheWoodvillescametobefavouredovertheNevillesatcourt.OtherfactorscompoundedWarwick'sdisillusionment:Edward'spreferenceforanalliancewithBurgundy(overFrance),andEdward'sreluctancetoallowhisbrothersGeorge,DukeofClarence,andRichard,DukeofGloucester,tomarryWarwick'sdaughters,IsabelNevilleandAnneNeville,respectively.Furthermore,Edward'sgeneralpopularitywasalsoonthewaneinthisperiodwithhighertaxesandpersistentdisruptionsoflawandorder.By1469WarwickhadformedanalliancewithEdward'sjealousandtreacherousbrotherGeorge.TheyraisedanarmywhichdefeatedtheKingattheBattleofEdgecoteMoor,andheldEdwardatMiddlehamCastleinYorkshire.(Atthispoint,WarwickbrieflyhadtwoKingsofEnglandinhiscustody.)Warwickhadthequeen'sfather,RichardWoodville,1stEarlRivers,executed.HeforcedEdwardtosummonaparliamentatYorkatwhichitwasplannedthatEdwardwouldbedeclaredillegalandthecrownwouldthuspasstoGeorge,DukeofClarenceasEdward'sheirapparent.However,thecountrywasinturmoil,andEdwardwasabletocallontheloyaltyofhisbrotherRichard,DukeofGloucester,andthemajorityofthenobles.RichardarrivedattheheadofalargeforceandliberatedKingEdward.WarwickandClarenceweredeclaredtraitorsandforcedtofleetoFrance,wherein1470LouisXIofFrancewascomingunderpressurefromtheexiledMargaretofAnjoutohelpherinvadeEnglandandregainhercaptivehusband'sthrone.ItwasKingLouiswhosuggestedtheideaofanalliancebetweenWarwickandMargaret,anotionwhichneitheroftheoldenemieswouldatfirstentertainbuteventuallycameroundto,realisingthepotentialbenefits.However,bothwereundoubtedlyhopingfordifferentoutcomes:WarwickforapuppetkingintheformofHenryorhisyoungson;Margarettobeabletoreclaimherfamily'srealm.Inanycase,amarriagewasarrangedbetweenWarwick'sdaughterAnneNevilleandMargaret'sson,theformerPrinceofWales,EdwardofWestminster,andWarwickinvadedEnglandintheautumnof1470.ThistimeitwasEdwardIVwhowasforcedtofleethecountrywhenJohnNevillechangedloyaltiestosupporthisbrotherWarwick.EdwardwasunpreparedforthearrivalofNeville'slargeforcefromthenorthandhadtoorderhisarmytoscatter.EdwardandGloucesterfledfromDoncastertothecoastandthencetoHollandandexileinBurgundy.WarwickhadalreadyinvadedfromFrance,andhisplanstoliberateandrestoreHenryVItothethronecamequicklytofruition.HenryVIwasparadedthroughthestreetsofLondonastherestoredkinginOctoberandEdwardandRichardwereproclaimedtraitors.Warwick'ssuccesswasshort-lived,however.HeoverreachedhimselfwithhisplantoinvadeBurgundyinalliancewiththeKingofFrance,temptedbyKingLouis'promiseofterritoryintheNetherlandsasareward.ThisledCharlestheBoldofBurgundytoassistEdward(whowasalsohisbrotherinlaw),providingfundsandanarmytolaunchaninvasionofEnglandin1471.EdwardlandedwithasmallforceatRavenspurontheYorkshirecoast.HesoongainedthecityofYork,andralliedseveralsupporters.HisbrotherClarenceturnedtraitoragain,abandoningWarwick.HavingcapturedLondon,Edward'sarmymetthatofWarwickattheBattleofBarnet.ThebattlewasfoughtinthickfogandsomeofWarwick'smenattackedeachotherbymistake.Instantly,itwasbelievedbyallthattheyhadbeenbetrayed,andWarwick'sarmyfled.Hehimselfwascutdowntryingtoreachhishorse.MargaretandhersonEdwardhadlandedintheWestCountryonlyafewdaysbeforetheBattleofBarnet.RatherthanreturntoFrance,MargaretsoughttojoinwiththeLancastriansupportersinWalesandmarchedtocrosstheSevern,butwasthwartedwhenthecityofGloucesterrefusedherpassageacrosstheriver.Herarmy,commandedbythefourthsuccessiveDukeofSomerset,wasbroughttobattleanddestroyedattheBattleofTewkesbury,andPrinceEdwardofWestminster,theLancastrianheirtothethrone,waskilled.Withnoheirstosucceedhim,HenryVIw