工程项目管理（本科生）课件绪论

绪论

IntroductionExamplesofprojects:Developinganewproductorservice;Effectingachangeinstructure,staffingorstyleofanorganization;Designinganewtransportationvehicle;Designingoracquiringanewormodifiedinformationsystem;Constructinganewbuildingorfacility;Runningacampaignforpoliticaloffice;Implementinganewbusinessprocedureorprocess;Respondingtoacontractsolicitation一次性中国的长城埃及的金字塔修理水龙头组织野餐举办运动会开发新软件研制航天飞机长江三峡工程由人来实施的；受制于有限的资源；需要计划、实施和控制Whydoweclassify?Toclassifymeanstogroupsimilarthings.Taxonomy:principlesofclassification.CRITERION!分类的目的：把多个事物中具有相同或相近属性的事物归为一类，有利于对客观事物进行科学的管理。

People’sworkingactivitiescanbeclassifiedintotwocategories,oneisoperation,theotherisproject.Anoperationisongoingandrepetitive.由人来实施的；受制于有限的资源；需要计划、实施和控制什么是项目？ProjectVsOperation一、项目的定义和特点Aprojectisatemporaryendeavorundertakentocreateauniqueproduct,serviceorresult.---AGuidetotheProjectManagementBodyofKnowledge(PMI)

项目是用来创建唯一性的产品或服务的临时性努力。Temporarymeansthateveryprojecthasadefinitebeginningandadefiniteend;uniquemeansthattheproductorserviceisdifferentfromallothers.Mostdistinguishingcharacteristics临时性是指每一个项目都有明确的开始和结束。唯一性是指任何产品或服务以一些显著的方式区别于其他任何相类似的产品或服务。TheUKAssociationforProjectManagementdefinesaprojectas‘adiscreteundertakingwithdefinedobjectivesoftenincludingtime,costandquality(performance)goals’.TheBritishStandardsInstitute(BS6079)definesaprojectas‘auniquesetofcoordinatedactivities,withdefinitestartingandfinishingpoints,undertakenbyanindividualororganizationtomeetspecificobjectiveswithdefinedschedule,costandperformanceparameters’特点：一次性(Temporary)

独特性(Unique)

目标的确定性(Objectives)

活动的整体性(Integration)

组织的临时性和开放性(TemporaryandOpen)

开发与实施的渐进性(ProgressiveElaboration)

成果的不可挽回性(Irretrievable)ProjectgoalsTargetCostPerformanceTimeThreedimensionsofprojectgoalsThethreegoalsareinterrelatedandmustbeaddressedsimultaneously;exclusiveemphasisonanyonegoalislikelytodetractfromtheothers.ArgumentonProjectSuccessTraditionally,thebasiccriteriaofcost,timeandquality,theso-called‘‘IronTriangle’’or‘‘GoldenTriangle’’,havebeenwidelyadoptedforalongtime.However,thesecriteriahavebeencriticisedforbeinginadequateformanyreasons.Overtheyears,variousattemptshavebeenmadeinovercomingtheperceivedinadequacies.Theseattemptsmaybegroupedintotwodifferentapproaches:oneistoaddmoredimensionstothebasiccriteriawhiletheothertoabstracttofewerdimensions.

项目的成功成功的项目Vs悉尼歌剧院澳大利亚的悉尼歌剧院项目于1959年开工，预算为700万美元，原计划用4年的时间完工，但实际在1973年才竣工，总造价达到了1.2亿美元。该项目因为过度超工期和预算，在建设过程中遭到了人们强烈的反对，甚至在项目刚完工时也不被看作是一个成功的项目。但随着项目投入到运营后，人们对它的评价却完全改变了，人们不再因为项目过度超工期和预算而责难它，反而给予了很高的评价。悉尼歌剧院不久便成为全世界公认的艺术杰作，被纳为人类的一笔宝贵财富。悉尼歌剧院SydneyOperaHouse

Thesiteoftheoperahouseissome500yardsfromwherethefirstEuropeancolonistslandedin1788.FortMacquariewasestablishedthereatBennelongPointin1821.Atramdepotcamealongin1902.Tramswerephasedoutinthe1950s,notlongafterSydneySymphonyOrchestraconductorEugeneGoossensbeganactivelyfloatingtheideaofaconcerthall.Agovernmentofficialseizedontheconceptandestablishedanadvisorycommittee,whichselectedthesiteoftheoldtramshedasthenewhomeoftheSydneyOperaHouse.

In1956,thegovernmentannouncedaninternationaldesigncompetition.Utzonwonthenextyearwithhisdistinctive"soaringsails"visionofaharborsidecenter.Hesaidhisideaforthestructurehadcomefromasimplesource:theorange.澳大利亚的悉尼歌剧院项目于1959年开工，预算为700万澳元，原计划用4年的时间完工，但实际在1973年才竣工，总造价达到了1.2亿澳元。

Constructionbeganin1959.Itwassupposedtotakefouryearsandcost$7millionAustralian(US$4.7million)--tobepaidfromlotteryrevenues.Thatturnedouttobeanunrealisticfigure.Constructionwasn'tfinisheduntil14yearslaterin1973,witha$100millionAustralian(US$66million)pricetag.但随着项目投入到运营后，人们对它的评价却完全改变了，悉尼歌剧院不久便成为全世界公认的艺术杰作，被纳为人类的一笔宝贵财富。SydneyOperaHousemustbeoneofthemostrecognizableimagesofthemodernworld-uptherewiththeEiffelTowerandtheEmpireStateBuilding-andoneofthemostphotographed.Notonlyisitrecognizable,ithascometorepresent'Australia'.Althoughonlyhavingbeenopensince1973,itisasrepresentativeofAustraliaasthepyramidsareofEgyptandtheColosseumofRome.

SydneyOperaHousefactsandfiguresDesignedbyDanisharchitectJørn

Utzon.OpenedbyQueenElizabethIIon20October1973.Presented,asitsfirstperformance,TheAustralianOpera'sproductionofWarandPeacebyProkofiev.Cost$AU102,000,000tobuild.Conducts3000eventseachyear.Providesguidedtoursto200,000peopleeachyear.Hasanannualaudienceof2millionforitsperformances.Includes1000rooms.Is185meterslongand120meterswide.Has2194pre-castconcretesectionsasitsroof.Hasroofsectionsweighingupto15tons.Hasroofsectionsheldtogetherby350kmoftensionedsteelcable.Hasover1milliontilesontheroof.Uses6225squaremetersofglassand645kilometersofelectriccable.WHATCHANGEDPEOPLE’SATTITUDETOIT?ThreeGorgesProject

TheideaofbuildingagiganticdamintheThreeGorgesareatoharnesstheYangtzeRiverisnotnew.Morethanseventyyearago,Dr.SunYat-sen,pioneeroftheChinesedemocraticrevolution,firstproposedthataYangtzeThreeGorgesProjectbeconstructed.Later,numerousexpertsconductedinvestigationsonandpreparatoryworkfortheproject.Butbecauseofhistoricreasonsandlackofresources,thedevelopmentoftheprojectremainedonlyadream.SincethefoundingofthePeople’sRepublicofChinain1949,theprojectwasbackontheagenda.Aftermeticulousfeasibilitystudiesbyexperts,itwasfinallyconcludedthatthemeritsoftheprojectfaroverweighitsdemerits.OnApril3,1992,theNationalPeople’sCongressapprovedtheconstructionoftheproject.TheThreeGorgesProjecthasitsmainbenefitsinfloodcontrol,powergenerationandnavigation.

Targetsachieved:Quality:first-classInvestment(Dynamic):190billion<220billion(RMB)Time:completedontimeatallstagesISTHREEGORGESPROJECTANENVIRONMENTALCATASTROPH?ProjectSuccessPMSuccessVsProjectEnterpriseEconomySocietyEnvironmentIMPACTSOFAPROJECTPROJECTSUCCESSACHIEVEMENTOFGOALSPMSUCCESSProgressiveelaborationisacharacteristicthataccompaniestheconceptsoftemporaryandunique.Progressiveelaborationmeansdevelopinginsteps,andcontinuingbyincrements.不确定性(Uncertainty)项目活动Project操作活动OperationInformation大More二、项目的广义性项目已渗入到了社会的经济、文化、军事的各个领域，社会的每一层次和每一角落。项目就在人们身边(Responsetoachangingenvironment)。

通过项目实现企业目标项目启动型企业

公共事业项目科研、社会、国防项目Whentheuncertaintyofaprojectdropstonearlyzero,andwhentheprojecteffortisrepeatedalargenumberoftimes,thentheworkisusuallynolongerconsideredaproject.Forexample,buildingaskyscraperisdefinitelyaproject,butmassconstructionofprefabricatedhomesmorecloselyresemblesascheduled,repetitivetaskthanaproject.三、工程项目(ConstructionProject,EngineeringProject)1、定义和构成定义在我国建设项目是固定资产投资项目的简称，包括基本建设项目和更新改造项目。工程项目也称工程建设项目或建设项目，是项目中数量最大的一类。这里的工程不是一般广义的工作或劳动，而是指最终成果是一个“实体”的工作或活动。工程项目是指通过特定的工作劳动所建造的某种“工程实体”。工程项目是投资行为与建设行为相结合的投资项目。2、工程项目的分类

按划分的标准不同，工程项目有不同的分类方法按投资的再生产性质基本建设项目更新改造项目按建设规模大中小按建设阶段（预备项目或筹建项目、新开工项目、施工项目、续建项目、投产项目、收尾项目、停建项目）按投资建设的用途生产性建设项目非生产性建设项目按资金来源（国家预算拨款项目、银行贷款项目、企业联合投资项目、企业自筹项目、利用外资项目、外资项目）项目既然是一次性的社会经济活动，就不是某一个固定的目的物。我们不能说已经建好的一栋大楼是一个项目，而只能说建造该大楼的过程或活动是一个项目。所以项目是相对于特定的管理主体而存在的。对某一主体构成一个项目的一次性活动，对于另一主体就未必能构成一个项目（如一栋大楼的施工任务）。项目的相对独立性ProjectVsProductBusinessPlanProductLifeCycleProjectLifeCycleIDEAInitialUpgradeIntermediateFinalDivestmentOperationsProductRelationshipbetweentheproductandtheprojectlifecycles

单项工程：有独立设计文件，可以独立施工，建成后可以发挥生产能力或效益的工程。生产性建设项目的单项工程，一般是指能独立生产的车间、设计规定的主要产品生产线等；非生产性建设项目的单项工程，是指工程项目中能够发挥设计规定的主要效益的各个独立工程，如办公楼、住宅、电影院、图书馆、食堂等。构成

单位工程：不能独立发挥生产能力，但具有独立设计图纸和独立施工条件的工程。单位工程是单项工程的组成部分。如某车间是一个单项工程，则车间的建筑工程（即厂房建筑）就是一个单位工程。又如该车间的设备安装也是一个单位工程。此外还有电器照明工程（包括室内外照明设备安装、线路铺设、变电与配电设备的安装工程）、工业管道工程（如蒸汽、压缩空气、煤气、输油管道铺设工程）等。分部工程：建筑物按单位工程的部位划分，亦即单位工程的进一步分解。如建筑工程中的一般土建工程，按照不同的部位、工种和不同的材料结构，大致可以分为土石方工程、基础工程、砖石工程、混凝土及钢筋混凝土工程、木结构、木装修工程等，其中的每一部分即为分部工程。分项工程：是分部工程的组成部分，一般是按工种划分，也是形成建筑产品基本构件的施工过程。分项工程是通过较为简单的施工过程就能生产出来，并且可以用适当的计量单位，计算工料消耗的最基本构造因素。例如砖石工程按工程部位，划分为内墙、外墙等分项工程；钢筋混凝土工程可划分为模板、钢筋、混凝土等分项工程；一般墙基工程可划分为开挖基槽、垫层、基础灌浇混凝土、防潮等分项工程。3、工程建设项目的特点建设项目属于一个总体设计或初步设计范围内,由一个或若干个相互有内在联系的单项工程所组成，建设中实行统一核算，统一管理的工程项目。

在一定约束条件下，以形成固定资产为特定目标。约束条件：时间约束；资源约束(投资总额)；质量约束。

建设项目需要遵循必要的建设程序和经过特定的建设过程。建设项目按照特定的任务，具有一次性特点的组织方式。表现为资金的一次性投入、建设地点的固定性、设计任务的一次性、施工的单件性。具有投资限额标准。只有达到一定限额投资的才作为建设项目，不满限额标准的成为零星固定资产购置。长远计划五年计划预备项目计划年度投资计划项目建议书可行性研究设计工作建设准备施工安装生产准备竣工验收生产经营项目后评价投资估算设计概算施工图预算竣工决算大中型和限额以上项目基本建设程序

世界银行贷款项目的项目周期项目选定(ProjectIdentification)项目准备(ProjectPreparation)项目评估(ProjectAppraisal)项目谈判(ProjectNegotiation)项目执行与监督(ProjectExecutionandSupervision)项目的后评价(ProjectPost-Evaluation)建设阶段Development时间设计/计划Design运行阶段O&M施工阶段Construction实施阶段Execution前期策划Concept生命期Lifecycle4.生命期的概念ConceptofLifecycle

Becauseprojectsareuniqueundertakings,theyinvolveadegreeofuncertainty,organizationsperformingprojectswillusuallydivideprojectintoseveralprojectphasestoprovidebettermanagementcontrolandappropriatelinkstotheongoingoperationsoftheperformingorganization.Collectively,theprojectphasesareknownastheprojectlifecycle.Eachprojectphaseismarkedbycompletionofoneormoredeliverables.Adeliverableisatangible,verifiableworkproductsuchasafeasibilitystudy,adetaildesign,oraworkingprototype.

建设项目各个阶段都有明确的任务和工作内容，以各种重要可交付性成果(Deliverables)为任务完成的标志：

决策阶段：这一阶段主要进行项目的前期工作，包括项目机会研究、可行性研究、项目立项、融资、选址等。决策阶段以业主需求的形成为标志。设计阶段：设计阶段主要是依照业主提出的要求进行建设项目的设计。通常设计包括概念设计、基本设计和详细设计。设计阶段以建设项目设计文档的完成为标志。

计划阶段：计划阶段指的是编制建设项目的施工组织计划和方案的阶段。该阶段以施工组织计划和方案的形成为标志。施工阶段：施工阶段指的是按设计图纸和施工组织计划进行具体项目实施的阶段，是建设项目的物理实现，形成项目产品的过程。该阶段以建设项目的竣工移交为标志。

运营阶段：该阶段包括建设项目从投入使用直至拆除的全过程。建设项目集成化管理中关注的主要是项目使用过程中的维护、维修、扩建和改建等要求该阶段以项目的物理拆除为标志。后评价阶段：后评价通常在建设项目投入运营一段时间后进行。建设项目后评价是评定项目决策时预定目标的实现程度，它主要包括项目的目标评价、项目实施过程评价、项目效益评价、项目影响评价和项目持续性评价等内容。通过后评价可以为以后的类似项目的决策和实施积累经验。

Plan/DesignConceptConstructionO&MInterrelationsOverlap建设项目阶段的相互关系

项目参与方(Participants)

在项目的生命期中，由不同的参与者承担不同的工作任务，这些任务属于整个建设项目的不同阶段。大型复杂的项目往往有多方面的人参与，例如业主、投资方、贷款方、承包人、供货商、建筑/设计师、监理工程师、咨询顾问等。他们往往通过合同和协议联系在一起，共同参与项目。各参与者的工作任务都符合项目的定义，各参与者都将自己的工作任务称为“项目”，都要进行项目管理，都有自己的项目管理组织。

OWNERS

Ownerscanbeindividualsseekingahomefortheirgrowingfamily,alargeorganizationrespondingtoachangeintechnology,amunicipalityseekingtoimproveitsinfrastructure,oradeveloperworkingtomakemoneybyfillingaperceivedmarketneed.Themotivationtobuildisasvariedastheprofileoftheindividualsandcompanies.Whateverthemotivation,however,theowneriswheretheprojectisborn.

PublicOwnersOne-quarteroftheconstructionintheUnitedStatesisdonewithpublicmoney.Themoneycanbefromlocal,state,orfederalsources,butinallcasestheowneristhetaxpayer.

Someoftheseprojectsaredonethroughpublicagenciesthatcommissiontheconstruction.Somepubliclyfundedprojectsaremanagedbyprivateorganizationssuchasuniversitiesorhospitals.

PrivateOwnersMostconstructionisfinancedthroughprivateownership.Thiscategoryincludesboththehomeownerwhobuildsonlyonehouseinalifetimeandthemultinationalcompanythatownsnumerousfacilities.Adeveloperisaspecialtypeofprivateownerwhooftenownstheprojectonlyforthedurationofconstruction.Thegoalistomakemoney,eitherthroughaquicksaleorthroughlong-termrentals.OwnerRepresentativesBecauseownerscanbeanyindividualororganizationthattakesonaconstructionproject,itisdifficulttofindacommonprofile.Facilitymanagersarethemostcommonprofessionalownerrepresentatives,whoareoftenthepeoplewhodeterminewhenconstructionprojectsarenecessary.Organizationswithoutlargein-housedepartmentsoftenhireoutsideconsultantstomanageconstructionprojects.

DESIGNPROFESSIONALS

Architectsandengineersaretheprincipledesignersofconstructionprojects.Onmostbuildingandresidentialsectorprojects,thearchitectistheleaddesigner,layingouttheconceptonpaperwiththeowner.Theengineerisusuallybroughtinafterthebasicconceptisworkedoutbutbeforethedetailsaredeveloped.Theengineerdesignsthebuildingsystems:structuresaswellasmechanical,electrical,andplumbingsystems.Oninfrastructureandindustrialprojects,theleaderdesignerisusuallyanengineer;thearchitectisbroughtintoworkontheaesthetics.Forexample,onarefineryproject,theengineerdesignsthemechanical,electrical,andstructuralsystems,whilethearchitecthandlestheofficespacesandbuildingcolorschemes.

CONSTRUCTIONPROFESSIONALS

Constructors

Constructoristhegeneraltermusedtodefinetheprofessionalresponsibleforallconstructionactivities,whetherheorsheworksasageneralcontractororaconstructionmanager.Ofthethreemajorparticipantsontheprojectteam,theconstructorhaschangedmostintermsoftypeandtrainingofpersonnel.

Inthepast,companyexecutivesrosethroughtheindustry’sranks,ofstartingascarpentersorlaborers.Today,companyheadsaregraduatesofbusinessschoolsorpeoplewithexperienceintherealestateordevelopmentindustries.Theirknowledgeofthedetailsofconstructionissupportedbytheexpertiseofspecialtysubcontractors.

SpecialtyConstructors

Generallyknownassubcontractors,thesespecialtyfirmsincludemechanical,electrical,excavation,anddemolitioncontractors.Theyareusuallyhiredbyandworkdirectlyforageneralcontractor.

TheTrades

Fromthetimethefirstpencilislaidtopaperinthedesignprocesstothecompletionofshopdrawingsandcoordinationdrawings,thegoalistoinstructthepeoplewhoactuallyperformtheworkinthefield:thetrades-people.Thetradesformthecoreoftheconstructionindustry—aconstantthroughoutitshistory.Someofthebasictrades:Piledrivers;Ironworkers;Cementmasons;Sheetmetalworkers;Plasterers;PlumbersandPipefitters;Electricians;Bricklayers;Glaziers;Roofers;Carpenters.

MaterialSuppliers

Aprojectmayhavetalenteddesigners,innovativeconstructors,andwealthy,sophisticatedowners;butwithoutmaterialstobuildwith,theprojectwouldbeonlyadream.Materialsandbuildingcomponentsaremanufactured,fabricated,andsometimesinstalledbysuppliers.

EquipmentSuppliers

Dependingontheproject,equipmentcanplayaverybigroleinconstruction.Highwayjobs,largeexcavations,bridges,tunnels,andtallbuildingsallrelyheavilyontheuseofequipmenttocarryoutthework.Thepeoplewhosupplythisequipmentofferitforsaleorrent.Amajordifferencebetweenequipmentandmaterialisthattheequipmentdoesnotbecomepartoftheprojectattheend.顾主投资方(股东)贷款方(银行)设计师咨询顾问承包商监理工程师供应商投资协议贷款协议设计合同咨询合同承包合同监理合同供应合同

利益相关者(Stakeholders)

还有一些个人和组织，其利益受项目的影响，同时他们的行为也会影响到项目的产出。这类个人和组织被称为利益相关者、利害相关者或项目干系人(Stakeholders)。除了直接参与项目活动的参与者外，项目利益相关者还可能包括政府的有关部门、社区公众、新闻媒体、市场中潜在的竞争对手和合作伙伴等。

因此，在项目过程中，应清楚存在那些项目利益相关者，他们各自的需求和期望是什么，对于项目管理者来说非常重要。只有这样，才能对利益相关者的需求和期望进行管理并施加影响，调动其积极因素，化解其消极因素，确保项目的成功。运行阶段前期策划设计/计划施工阶段建设单位投资者设计单位承包商建设项目的参与方5、生命期的理解全过程建设项目的生命期包括建设期和运营期，而任何一个项目带来收益，或者说其功能的实现是在运营期。所以项目的目标设定应着眼于运营期目标，努力实现项目功能的最优化及可持续发展能力。然后在满足全生命期目标的前提下，设定各阶段目标。

全员性建设项目涉及多个参与方，他们的活动和努力共同实现项目的目标。因此在项目过程中，很重要的一点是协调各方的角色和关系，使他们在满足各自利益的前提下，对项目目标产生尽可能大的贡献。

可持续性此处谈及的可持续性是指项目循环的可持续性。虽然项目活动是一次性的，但对于多个项目循环来说，项目与项目之间是连续的。任何一个项目都会运用以往项目的经验，同时为下一次项目循环积累知识。四、工程项目管理1、管理的任务和职能任务Managementistheprocessofcoordinatingworkactivitiessothattheyarecompletedefficientlyandeffectivelywithandthroughotherpeople.管理是对组织的资源进行有效整合以达到组织既定目标与责任的动态创造性活动。职能Planning,Organizing,Commanding,CoordinatingandControllingIntotal,thesefunctionsrepresentthemanagementprocess.Someofthespecificactivitiesinvolvedineachfunctioninclude:Planning.Establishinggoalsandstandards;developingrulesandprocedures;developingplansandforecasting—predictingorprojectingsomefutureoccurrence.Organizing.Givingeachsubordinateaspecifictask;establishingdepartments;delegatingauthoritytosubordinates;establishingchannelsofauthorityandcommunication;coordinatingtheworkofsubordinates.Staffing.Decidingwhattypeofpeopleshouldbehired;recruitingprospectiveemployees;selectingemployees;settingperformancestandards;compensatingemployees;evaluatingperformance;counselingemployees;traininganddevelopingemployees.Leading.Gettingotherstogetthejobdone;maintainingmorale;motivatingsubordinates.Controlling.Settingstandardssuchassalesquotas,qualitystandards,orproductionlevels;checkingtoseehowactualperformancecompareswiththesestandards;takingcorrectiveactionasneeded.PlanningOrganizingLeadershipControlChange(OrganizationalGoals)ThefunctionsofmanagementCopingwith“temporariness”Managershavealwaysbeenconcernedwithchange.What’sdifferentnowadaysisthelengthofbetweenchanges.Inthepast,managingcouldbecharacterizedbylongperiodsofstability,interruptedoccasionallybyshortperiodsofchange.Managingtodaywouldbemoreaccuratelydescribedaslongperiodsofongoingchange,interruptedoccasionallybyshortperiodsofstability.EfficiencyandeffectivenessinmanagementResourceusageGoalattainmentEfficiency(Means)Effectiveness(Ends)LowwasteHighattainmentManagementStrivesfor:Lowresourcewaste(highefficiency)Highgoalattainment(higheffectiveness)2、管理的理论观点ManagementViewpointsThecurrentviewpointabouthowtomanageorganizationsisbutthelatestinanevolvingseriesofmanagementpropositionsandmethodologies.ClassicalviewpointBehavioralviewpointSystemsviewpointContingencyviewpoint

ClassicalviewpointTheearliest,calledtheclassicalviewpoint,originatedatthestartofthe20thcentury.Thisheldthattherewasonebestwaytomanagewithacorrespondingsetofuniversalbureaucraticandscientificmanagementprinciplesthatappliedtoallsituations.FrederickWinslowTaylor,“PrinciplesofScientificManagement”,“pigironexperiment”FrankandLillianGilbreth,microchronometer,“bricklayingexperiment”HenryFayol,“Principlesofmanagement”MaxWeber,bureaucracyIntheory,theprinciplesareusefulforoutliningthekindsofthingsmanagersshoulddo.Thedrawbackisthattheprinciplespresumemuchmoreorderandrationalitythanactuallyexistsinorganizations,thereforetheyprovidepoorguidanceabouthowmanagersshouldpracticetheseprinciplesindifferentsituations.

BehavioralviewpointThe1930sbroughtthebehavioralviewpointinwhichtheemphasisshiftedfromworkprinciplestothehumanandsocialaspectsoforganizations.Fouroutstandingearlyadvocators:RobertOwen,HugoMunsterberg,MaryParkerFollettandChesterBarnardEltonMayo,“TheHawthornestudies”Thecontributionofthisviewpointisthatithighlightedtheimportanceofleadershipstyle,groupdynamics,andsocialenvironment,conceptsneveracknowledgedbytheclassicaltheorists.Thebehaviorists,however,liketheirclassicalcounterparts,tendedtolookatmanagementrathernarrowly.Humanandorganizationbehavioraremorecomplexthantheypresumed,andmanybehavioristtheoriesconcerningsatisfaction,morale,andproductivityaretoosimplistictobeofpracticaluse.Intheend,managersstillhavetorelyontheirownbestjudgment.ContemporaryTheoriesofMotivation

ERGTheory:Existence;Relatedness;GrowthThree-NeedsTheory:NeedforAchievement;NeedforPower;NeedforAffiliationGoal-SettingTheory:Thepropositionthatspecificgoalsincreaseperformanceandthatdifficultgoals,whenaccepted,resultinhigherperformancethandoeasygoals.ReinforcementTheory:Thetheorythatbehaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences.DesigningMotivatingJobs:Jobenlargement(jobscope);Jobenrichment(jobdepth).Jobcharacteristicsmodel(JCM)EquityTheory:Thetheorythatanemployeecompareshisorherjob’sinputs-outcomesratiowiththatofrelevantothersandthencorrectsanyinequity.ExpectancyTheory:Thetheorythatanindividualtendstoactinacertainwaybasedontheexpectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandontheattractivenessofthatoutcometotheindividual.

SystemsviewpointDuringWorldWarIIthethirdviewpoint,calledsystemsapproach,wasintroduced.Whereasthefirsttwoviewpointssoughttosimplifymanagementthroughconceptsthatwouldfitallsituations,thesystemsviewpointacknowledgescomplexityandcausalrelationships.Simplystated,beforethemanagercanprescribeaction,shemustfirstunderstandthesystemanditsrelationshipwiththeenvironment.Theapproachsuggestedwaystounderstandtheelementsanddynamicsofasituation,andmodelstohelpclarifyproblemsandidentifycoursesofaction.Buteventhesemodelswerenotpanacea.Theycouldnotalwaysbereliedupontotellthemanagerwhattodobecausetheycouldnotadequatelyrepresent“nonquantifiables”suchashumanmotivations,emotions,andvalues.Eventhesystemsviewpointmusteventuallybesupplementedbythejudgmentofthemanager.

ContingencyviewpointAllthreeviewpointsrepresentdifferentperspectives,allmakevaluablecontributionstomanagementtheoryandpractice,andallhavelimitations.Thecurrentcontingencyviewpointrecognizesthatnoneofthemalonecanguideamanagerinallaspectsofthejobineverysituation.Thecurrentviewpoint,whichincludesideaslikesituationalleadershipandthecontingencyapproachtomanagement,stressesthatallthreeviewscanbeappliedindependentlyorinsomecombination,dependinguponthesituation.Thecontingencyviewpointsuggeststhatformanagementpracticetobeeffective,itmustbeconsistentwiththerequirementsoftheenvironment,thetaskstobeperformed,andthepeoplewhoperformthem.Amanagershouldbefamiliarwiththeconceptsofthethreeearlierviewpoints,beabletounderstandanddiagnoseeachsituation,andthenchoosethemostappropriatemixofprocedures,leadershipstyles,andmanagementfunctions.Thecontingencyviewpointdoesnotprovidesolutionstowhatworksinallsituations,butdoessuggestwhattendstoworkbestinspecificcases.Projectmanagementistheapplicationofknowledge,skills,tools,andtechniquestoprojectactivitiesinordertomeetorexceedstakeholderneedsandexpectationsfromaproject.Meetingorexceedingstakeholderneedsandexpectationsinvariablyinvolvesbalancingcompetingdemandsamong:--scope,time,cost,andquality.--Stakeholderswithdifferingneedsandexpectations.--Identifiedrequirements(needs)andunidentifiedrequirements(expectations).

----AGuidetotheProjectManagementBodyofKnowledge3、项目管理的定义

项目管理是在项目活动中运用知识、技能、工具和技术，以便满足和超过项目业主对项目的需求和期望。满足和超过项目业主的需求和期望总是包含在下列各种矛盾的需求之间寻求平衡：范围、时间、费用和质量；有不同要求和期望的项目业主；已明确的需求和未明确的需求。TheUKAssociationforProjectmanagementdefinesitas‘theplanning,organization,monitoringandcontrolofallaspectsofaprojectandthemotivationofallinvolvedtoachieveprojectobjectivessafelyandwithinagreedtime,costandperformancecriteria’.TheBritishStandardsInstitute(BS6079)definesitas‘theplanning,monitoringandcontrolofallaspectsofaprojectandthemotivationofallthoseinvolvedtoachievetheprojectobjectivesontimeandtocost,qualityandperformance’.项目启动过程（ProjectInitiating）:初步确定项目组成员、项目量限、项目计划等；Initiatingprocesses—recognizingthataprojectorphaseshouldbeginandcommittingtodoso;项目的进程管理（动态）项目计划过程（ProjectPlanning）:建立WBS（工作分解结构），确认项目流程、项目详细计划，评审、批准计划；Planningprocesses—devisingandmaintainingaworkableschemetoaccomplishthebusinessneedthattheprojectwasundertakentoaddress;项目的进程管理（动态）项目执行过程（ProjectExecuting）:组织和协调人力资源和其他资源，激励团队完成工作计划；Executingprocesses—coordinatingpeopleandotherresourcestocarryouttheplan;项目的进程管理（动态）项目控制过程（ProjectControlling）:制订项目工作标准、监督、纠偏等。Controllingprocesses—ensuringthatprojectobjectivesandmetbymonitoringandmeasuringprogressandtakingcorrectiveactionwhennecessary;项目的进程管理（动态）

项目收尾（ProjectClosing）:完成项目移交。

Closingprocesses—formalizingacceptanceoftheprojectorphaseandbringingittoanorderlyend.项目的进程管理（动态）InitiatingProcessesPlanningProcessesExecutingProcessesControllingProcessesClosingProcessesLinksamongprocessgroupsinaphaseArrowspresentFlowsofDocumentsandDocumentableItems.Theprocessgroupsarelinkedbytheresultstheyproduce—theresultorOutcomeofonebecomesaninputtoanother.AnunderlyingconceptfortheinteractionamongtheprojectmanagementprocessesisthePDCAcycle(asdefinedbyShewhartandmodifiedbyDeming).PlanDoCheckActionInitiatingprocessesClosingprocessesPlanningprocessesExecutingprocessesMonitoring&controllingprocessesProjectmanagementprocessgroupsmappedtothePDCAcycle项目管理九大知识领域（静态）(1)项目范围管理（ProjectScopeManagement）是指对一个项目从立项到结束所涉及范围进行的管理和控制；(2)项目时间管理（ProjectTimeManagement）也就是进度管理或工期管理；(3)项目成本管理（ProjectCostManagement）即项目结算、项目预算编制和控制等活动；(4)项目质量管理（ProjectQualityManagement）(5)项目人力资源管理(ProjectHumanResourceManagement)对人力资源的规划、开发、配置、评估、激励等工作；(6)项目沟通管理（ProjectCommunicationManagement）包括项目内外部沟通，信息传递方式、内容和过程管理，项目团体有关思想感情等活动的管理；

(7)项目风险管理（ProjectRiskManagement）包括项目风险识别、评价与控制等过程；

(8)项目采购管理（ProjectProcurementManagement）项目组织从外部寻求和采购资源的过程，如招标；

(9)项目集成管理（ProjectIntegrationManagement）指项目管理的全局性工作。ProjectManagementBodyofKnowledgePMBOKGuideInterpersonalSkillsApplicationAreaKnowledge,StandardsandRegulationsGeneralManagementKnowledge&SkillsUnderstandingProjectEnvironment4、工程项目管理的类型项目管理分类按管理主体不同划分按管理层次划分按内涵和范围划分业主方项目管理咨询监理方项目管理承包方项目管理BOT项目管理宏观项