英语语言学概论Chapter6Syntax

英语语言学概论Chapter6Syntax第一页，共49页。6.1definitionofsyntax:howthewordsofalanguagecanbecombinedtomakelargerunits,suchasphrases,clauses(分句)andsentences.Itstudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsofthesentencestructureandtherulesgoverningtheproductionofsentences第二页，共49页。Finite(有限的)numberofwordsandsmallsetofrulescancreateinfinitenumberofsentencesSyntacticknowledge:theintuitionofnativespeakersabouthowwordsarecombinedtobephrasesandsentences.第三页，共49页。6.2Grammar:syntaxandmorphologyGrammarstudiesthemorphologicalandsyntacticrulesoflanguage.Itexcludesphonetics,phonology,semantics.Grammarincludesmorphologyandsyntax;MorphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandwordformationprocessesSyntaxdealswiththesentencestructuresandproducton.Statically(静态的):sentencestructure;dynamically:sentencegeneration.第四页，共49页。6.3syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations6.3thesyntagmaticrelationshipreferstothelinearrelationshipbetweentheconstituents(成分)(syntagmsorsyntagmas组成成分).HeisfromAmericaSetsofsyntagmaticallyrelatedconstituentsarecalledstructure第五页，共49页。Paradigmaticrelationsorassociativerelationsreferstothesetofrelationsalinguistcunithaswithotherunitsinaspecificcontext.ParadigmaticrelationsholdbetweenanitemandsimilaronesthatcanappearinthesamepositioninasequenceParadigmaticrelatonsholdbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.第六页，共49页。Classesofparadigmaticallyrelatedelementsarecalledsystem,like“personsystem(人称系统)I/you/he/we/you/theylikedtheplay.Syntacticcategories(句法范畴)refertothelinguisticformsthathaveparadigmaticrelations.Theyincludelexicalcategories(词汇范畴)andnon-lexicalcategories.第七页，共49页。Lexicalcategories:Noun(N):book,table.Verb(V);hit,tellAdjective(Adj):good,badAdverb(Adv):greatlyDeterminer(Det)(限定词):a,this,his,Preposition(P):oninconjunction(Conj);andifInterjection(Int)(感叹词):oh,ah第八页，共49页。Phrasalcategories:Nounphrase(NP):abookVerbphrase(VP):singasongAdjectivephrase(AP):verygoodAdverbphrase(ADVP):verywell,Auxiliaryphrase(AUX)(助动词):tense,model,perf,prog:be,may,Prepositionalphrase(PP):intheroom第九页，共49页。Hierarchicalstructure(层次结构)refertotheinnerlayering(内部层次关系)ofsentences,thatis,sentencesconsistingofphrasesandphrasesinturnarecomposedofwords.HierarchicalstructurecanbeanalysedbyICanalysis,labeledICanalysis,phrasemarkersandlabeledbracketing.第十页，共49页。6.4ICAnalysis,….ICAnalysisofsentences:todividethewordsofasentenceintotwogroups,andthendivideeachgroupintosub-groupsandsoon,untilthesinglewordsofthesentencesareobtained.ItisamajorfeatureofBloomfieldianStructuralistlinguistics(布龙菲尔德结构主义语言学的主要特征)第十一页，共49页。

SheisfromAmerica

She+isfromAmerica

is+fromAmerica

from+AmericaImmediateconstituents:UltimateconstituentsConstituents:alltheformsexcepttheoneatthetop---thesentenceitself第十二页，共49页。OneadvantageofICAnalysisistorevealstructuralambiguity(结构性歧义)naughtyboysandgirls

naughty+boysandgirls

boys+and+girlsnaughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboys+and+girlsNaughty+boys第十三页，共49页。

Theyareflyingplanes

They+areflyingplanes

are+flyingplanes

flying+planes

(这些飞机是正在飞行的飞机)Theyareflyingplanes

They+areflyingplanesareflying+planes

are+flying(他们在驾驶或乘飞机)Theyarevisitingrelatives第十四页，共49页。DotheICAnalysisofthefollowingsentences:LittleTomrunsveryfast.Theseapplesareverysweet.Hisbrotherstayedathome.HisbrotherbeatlittleJohn.第十五页，共49页。LittleTomrunsveryfast.LittleTom+runsveryfastLittle+Tom

runs+veryfastvery+fast

Thoseapplesareverysweet.Thoseapples+areverysweetThose+apples

are+verysweet

very+sweet第十六页，共49页。Hisbrotherstayedathome.Hisbrother

+stayedathome

His+brother

stayed+athome

at+home

ThatboybeatlittleTonyThatboy+beatlittleTony

That+boy

beat+littleTony

little+Tony第十七页，共49页。AstheICanalysisshowthatthesefoursentenceshavethesamestructuresuperficially,ICanalysisshouldbemodified.LabeledICAnalysis:tolabelthegrammaticalcategoriesofeachconstituentsandthesentences.第十八页，共49页。

LittleTomrunsveryfast./SLittleTom/NP+runsveryfast/VPLittle/Adj+Tom/Nruns/V+veryfast/ADVP

very/Adv+fast/Adv

Thoseapplesareverysweet./sThoseapples/NP+areverysweet/VPThose/Det+apples/Nare/V+verysweet/APvery/Adv+sweet/Adj第十九页，共49页。

Hisbrotherstayedathome./SHisbrother

/NP+stayedathome/VP

His/Det+brother/Nstayed/V+athome/PPat/P+home/N

ThatboybeatlittleTony/SThatboy/NP+beatlittleTony/VPThat/Det+boy/Nbeat/V+littleTony/NPlittle/Adj+Tony/N

第二十页，共49页。AstheICAnalysisistooredundant(重复的)andtroublesome,thephrasemarkers(短语标记法)areadvanced.LittleJohnrunsverfastThoseapplesareverysweet.Hisbrotherstaysathome.ThatboybeatlittleJohn.第二十一页，共49页。Labeledbracketing(方括标记法):

[s[NP[Detthe][Napples]][VP[Vare][AP[ADVP[Advvery]][Adjsweet]]]]第二十二页，共49页。ConstituencyandDependencyConstituency(成分关系):Itistodivideasentenceintoaseriesofconstituentswhichcanbeanalysedintofurtherconstituentsuntilnofurtherdivisionispossible.Constituentsstructureanalysisisahierarchicalanalysisshowingthedifferentconstituentsatdifferentstructurallevels.第二十三页，共49页。Dependencygrammar(依存语法)asrepresentedbyLucienTesniereistodescribedependencystructuresofsentences,thatis,thestructureofdependencyrelationsbetweentheelementsofasentence.Inasyntacticconnectionbetweentwoelementsoneisthegoverningelement(支配因素)andtheotheristhedependentelement(依存因素).Whenagoverningelementisdependentonanothergoverningelement,ahierarchicaldependecystructurewillresults.Inasentence,theabsolutegovernoristheverb.第二十四页，共49页。6.6TGGrammar(转换生成语法)Staticstudyoflanguagedealswithonlysurfacestructure(表层结构);dynamicstudyoflanguagedealswithbothsurfacestructureanddeepstructure.Sentencegeneration(句子的生成)alwaysstartswiththedeepstructureandthentransformsitintosurfacestructure.第二十五页，共49页。Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(短语结构规则)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromthedeepstructurebythetransformationalrules.

第二十六页，共49页。Thewholeprocesscanberepresentedby:

Phrasestructurerules↓↓deepstructure↓↓T-rules↓↓surfacestructure第二十七页，共49页。Thesamesurfacestructure:

Theturkey(火鸡)isreadytoeat.differentdeepstructure:a:Theturkeyitselfisreadytoeatsomething.

(turkeyisthelogicalsubjectofeat)bTheturkeyasadishisreadyforpeopletoeat.(turkeyisthelogicalobjectofeat)第二十八页，共49页。Twosurfacestructuremayhavethesamedeepstructure:theboybrokethewindow.Thewindowwasbrokenbytheboy.Samestructures:Theproblemiseasytofollow.第二十九页，共49页。Diffenrences:Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentences;whiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences第三十页，共49页。4surfacesrtucturesarepronounceable(havephoneticforms)butdeepstructuresarenot.第三十一页，共49页。6.6.2phrasestructurerules

→”consistof”or”isrewrittenas”():optionalconstituents(可有成分);compulsoryconstituents;{}要么S→NPAUPVPHeisworking.NP→(Det)(AP)NthoseoldbooksAP→{(AP)/(ADVP)}AdjveryoldVP→V{(NP)(PP)(S)/(AP)(ADVP}runfast,gettotheschool第三十二页，共49页。PP→PNPintheboxAUX→Tense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog)Tense→{present/past}wasisModal→can,may,must,will,shall,could…Perf→have-EN(完成体)Prog→be-ING(进行体)第三十三页，共49页。VPhastwoparts:thebaseformandinflectinalendingswhichbelongtotheauxiliaryphrase:tense,modal,perf,prog.第三十四页，共49页。6.6.3transformationalrules(转换规则):totransformdeepstructuresintosurfacestructures,whichinvolvesaseriesofT-rules.ThemoreT-rulesareapplied,themoreconcretethestructurebecomesandthecloseritistoitssurfacestructure.第三十五页，共49页。

deepstructure↓byT-rules(1)modifiedstructure(1)↓byT-rules(2)modifiedstructure(2)……↓….byT-rules(n)surfacestructure

第三十六页，共49页。EachT-ruleperformsoneortwoofthefollowingthreeoperations:rearrangingtheelementsofthestructure;addinganewelement;deletinganelementfromthestructure.Eachtransformationalruleconsistsoftwoparts:structuraldescription(SD);structuralchange(SC).Inthedescription,X,Y,Zcanbeusedasthevariables(变量)第三十七页，共49页。1T-Affixhopping(时态词缀跳换):SD:X

Affix

V

Y1234SC:13242T-Passive(被动态转换规则)SD:NP1

AUX

V

NP2

Y12345SC:42+be-en3+by15第三十八页，共49页。3T-Agentdeletion(施事删除)SD:NP2

AUX+be-EN

V

+byNP1

X12345SC:123O54T-Negation(否定转换规则)SD:XTense{modal/have/be}Y123SC12+not3第三十九页，共49页。5T-DoinsertionSD:X

Tense

Y123(Tenseisnotfollowedby{modal/have/be})SC:12+do36T-YesorNoquestion(是否问句)SD:NP

Tense{Modal/have/be}

X123SC:213第四十页，共49页。7T-Wh-wordquestion(特殊疑问句):T-Wh-wordinsertion→T-YesorNOquestion(→T-Doinsertion)→T-Wh-wordswitching→T-Affixhopping8T-Reflexive(反身代词):SD:NP1

X

NP2(NP1=NP2)123SC12Reflexive第四十一页，共49页。9T-Imperative(祈使句)SD:Y

Present

V

X(Y=you)1234SC:O234OfalltheT-rules,T-Affixhoppingisobligatorywhileothersareoptional.Practice第四十二页，共49页。Theorderingoftransformationalrules:

Iftheorderingisnotfollowed,thetransformationwillproduceill-formedsentencesorbeb