毕业论文外文翻译-消费者决策

英文文献译文：下面的消费者研究将会说明在一个消费者社会里很多的消费者行为被社会心理学家研究，这包括消费者刺激和消费者行为。因此，消费者环境为社会现象和行为的研究提供了一个丰富的领域。消费者决策无所不在不管我们在何时何地，我们都在不停地制定消费者决定。我们在健身馆注册，经常坐飞机去度假，做体检，选一个餐馆，为了一个更健康的生活方式少吃甜食。实际上，我们的很多日常决定没有包括较重要的决定，比如，嫁给谁或是否要小孩，但包含了是否喝茶或咖啡，用卡或付现金，或其他的一些琐碎的决定。而且，我们日常的很多消费者行为甚至是无意的。相反，它们可能是出于习惯，比如打开美国有线电视新闻网络来了解新闻或搜索谷歌来找一些资料。一个人在一天中充满了无尽的琐碎的消费决定或者受以前决定的影响，在早上从选择牙膏的品牌到工作后选择看哪部电影。消费者的选择影响社会认同感的功能虽然对大多数人来说是一个消费者可能不会确定他们的身份，但他们的消费决定仍然是高度身份相关的，就它们对应到更大的价值观和信仰，表达自我的重要方面。素食主义者是不忍心看到动物被杀害和一些人抵制买那些被认为是由儿童劳工制成的衣服。一些人买丰田普瑞斯出于是对环境的关注；另一些人抵制日本汽车，比如普瑞斯，是为了帮助当地的汽车工业。在这方面，甚至在可口可乐和百事可乐之间选择是不必要的琐事。人们不能在盲目的测试中区分可口可乐和百事可乐，或他们更喜欢百事可乐，然而可能还是坚持可口可乐作为一种文化标志。尝试改变可口可乐的配方会使反对者生气。显然，消费品和品牌不仅满足实际的需要。在一个世界，供过于求和品牌的区分，很多消费者选则品牌是为了表达他们的个性或使他们自己屈服于他们的欲望。他们不是简单的使用苹果；他们是苹果的使用者并认为换另一个牌子的个人电脑会像是一个背叛者一样。从饮料到电脑，品牌成为一种意识形态。人们可能也会把产品的认知作为自身的延伸；比如，他们可能认同他们的车就像他们对待他们的宠物一样。同样地，品牌可能会定义为社会群。哈利戴维森俱乐部是一个传奇的例子；一个因特网搜索俱乐部揭示几乎每一种汽车的品牌和型号。在我的家乡，我发现一个大众新甲壳虫俱乐部宣称要建立新甲壳虫司机之间的联系，通过组织社会赛事。在路上，开同一种汽车型号的司机经常会相互打招呼。显然，开同一型号的汽车足以建立社会亲近感。品牌，产品和消费习惯不仅有益于建立社会联系，而且作为地位标志，定义垂直和水平的社会界限。通过用特别的品牌或消费特定的产品，人们可以表达一种特定的生活方式或尝试传递某种特定的社会印象。不管你对饮料的选择是否是红酒或是啤酒，卡布齐诺咖啡或花草茶，你的选择表达了更多，不仅仅是你对饮料的品味。消费选择影响社会知觉假定品牌和产品是社会表现形式的一部分，这一点也不意外人们评判这些通过他们所使用的品牌和产品。特别是产品的社会认知功能被用来依据目标的推理和个性特征。同样地，香烟、食物的选择和食物的摄取量都显示了影响社会表达形式。根据感知者的次文化，不同的个性特征被假设在于吸烟者和不吸烟者的对比。不同的研究发现健康的饮食者被认为是比那些饮食不健康的人更加的温和，通常更加受欢迎。一个喝百事可乐的人和一个喝可口可乐人的争论正如一个凯普莱特和一个蒙塔古的争论，当然，有点夸张，但很明显品牌可能把群内的成员和群外的成员区分开来。可能这在青少年中区别最大，那里的牛仔裤的牌子被确定为酷和大众化。然而，这种现象不只局限于青年文化，之前的社区例子就像是被证实的所定义的共享品牌。总之，从湿刮胡刀与干刮胡刀的对比到开保时捷与开斯玛特的对比，消费者行为被用作一种信息在个人认知中。很可能，这样的信息也一样用来显示这些消费者的行为。女人身上所穿的皮衣而引起的消费是一个经典的例子。消费者行为的情感影响显然，消费产品的使用和服务可能会让人感到高兴、满意或生气、不满意。人们可能会从穿一件新衣而体会到快乐，或者感到痛苦。当产品或服务失败或引起不便，产品使用只是影响消费者情感的一个因素，仅仅是选择和适应另一种产品的行为。人们享受或不喜欢购物的体验，他们可能从在不同产品的自由选择中得到快乐，在大量的选择中感到不知所措或感到沮丧。当他们在有限的产品中找不到满足他们特殊需要的产品，从这一事实中，他们都能体会得到欲望和一个自尊刺激,即他们能负担得起的某一特定消费者的生活方式。很多的日常情感经历的因素包括消费者行为在一种或另一种方式中产生。消费者环境提供了独一无二的社会交流但是，我们很少与我们的发型设计师和服务生产生紧密的联系。然而，消费者环境天天提供了很多的社会交流。同样，这些相互交流，即使是信念可能会构成一种情感经历的资源。咖啡师的微笑，商店售货员的赞美，看门人的友好帮助，这些例子揭示了与消费者有关的相互交流如何使我们感觉良好、值得的、被重视。然而粗暴的反应产生相反的效果。而且，这些社会角色被可能被消费者环境定义为了不是其他角色固有的某些特定的行为，相互交流和经验提供了独一无二的机会。作为一个顾客或消费者使一方得到尊重，礼貌对待和满足需求。对某些人来说，这可能是他们生活的唯一角色是能给他们掌握有限的感觉和让其他人满足他们的需求。举另一个例子，投诉是社会交流的一种形式，它通常发生在消费者环境里。鉴于消费者环境对社会经验和社会交流的重要性，消费者语境为研究这些社会行为提供了重要机会。不是每一个消费者通过这些阶段当他们做决定买买东西时，实际上，其中的一些阶段可能会跳过，这取决于购买物的类型。对消费者进行研究的原因，通过理解下列问题帮助公司和机构提高他们的营销策略：消费者怎么想、感觉、理由和对不同物品（如品牌、产品）的筛选的心理；消费者的行为当他们购物或作其他的营销决定；消费者知识或信息获得能力的限制影响决定和营销结果；市场营销者们怎样才能适应和提高他们的营销竞争力合营销策略来更有效率的吸引消费者。贝尔奇给出了消费者行为的官方定义：过程和人们所从事的活动当他们为了满足他们的需求进行研究、选择、购买、使用、评价和处理产品和服务。行为发生在个人或者在此背景下出现的一个群体或一个组织。消费者行为包括了使用和处理产品以及研究产品怎样被买。产品的使用一般是市场营销者很感兴趣的，因为这可能会影响一个产品怎样处于最佳位置或者我们怎呀才能鼓励增加消费。尼科西亚模式集中于公司和它的潜在客户之间的关系。公司与消费者交流通过它的营销信息或广告和消费者对要买产品的信息的反应。看到这个模式我们将发现公司和消费者之间是相互联系的，公司想要影响消费者，消费者通过他的决定来影响公司决策。三：购买行为尼科西亚模式被分为四个主要领域：领域1：顾客态度根据公司的信息。第一个领域分为两个次领域。第一个次领域处理公司的营销环境和交流努力这影响顾客的态度，竞争的环境和目标市场的特点。次领域二细分了顾客的特点，如经验，个性和他怎样认知对产品的宣传思想，在这个阶段顾客形成了对公司产品的态度根据他对产品信息的掌握。领域2：研究和评价消费者会开始研究另一个公司的品牌和评价这个品牌通过对比其他的牌子。在这种情况下，公司动员消费者购买它的牌子。领域3：购买的行为动机的结果将会上升通过说服消费者从一个零售商那里购买这个公司的产品。所罗门模型的对比过程表2.7解释了一些问题贯穿在消费过程的各个阶段。转换在二个或多个组织或人里给出或收到一些有价值的东西，它是市场营销不可或缺的一部分。所罗门也提出了消费者行为包含了不同的因素。购买产品和使用产品的人可能不是同一个人。人们可能也会起到影响购买过程的作用。很多市场营销活动，他们建议应集中适应于产品提供目标市场需求的特殊环境。它也一样会刺激已经存在的需求通过广告和促销，而不是创造需求。这些定义和模式到目前为止已经被呈现出来了，他们来自普通的市场营销理论。旅游就其本质而言是一种服务而不是一种产品。它可能对消费者行为有很大影响。表2.8消费者行为的刺激反应模式该模式分离出在购买行为方面的激励因素和决定因素重要的影响，同时也强调某个机构能对消费者购买过程使用的沟通渠道。史莫尔发展一个模型假设消费者的决策是四种元素的一种结果如下：旅游刺激，包括导游书，报道来自其他旅游人员、广告和促销旅游行为的个人的和社会的决定因素包括动机、要求和期望外部变量，包括旅游目的地的形象，信心贸易中介机构和一些限制如成本和时间目的地服务业的特点和特征，如在察觉到成本和价值，景点的范围和设施提供的联系消费者取得积极或消极成见根据他们具有不同的人口（年龄，性别，宗教）协会，社会经济（收入，职业），文化/民族（种族，生活方式），或政治，社会意识形态领域。有形产品的选择涉及高度（如服装，珠宝）和良好的服务，以便与他人共用（例如，礼品，在娱乐性使用的产品）通常是由社会价值导向。例如，一个特定的使汽车是被选中的功能表现比其诱发的社会形象。即使产品一般被认为是功能性或功利性，往往选择是基于他们的社会价值观。消费情绪是指在产品使用或引起消费体验特别的情感反应集，所描述的情感体验和表达（如喜悦，愤怒和恐惧）的独特类或相关，如情绪性范畴的结构尺寸或愉快/不愉快，放松/行动，或平静/激动。商品和服务往往伴随着（如在观看恐怖电影引起的恐惧）的情绪反应。情感价值往往与（如宗教，原因）的审美选择。然而，更多的物质和功利的产品似乎也有情感价值。例如，有些食物引起的童年经历，通过他们与协会舒适的感觉。伊扎德（1977）发展了情感体验的方法，介绍了基本的情感。他用十措词来区分情绪基本种类：兴趣，喜悦，惊讶，悲伤，愤怒，厌恶，蔑视，恐惧，羞耻和内疚。这种方法已被广泛使用的消费者研究。为了实施人际和个人建构在这个框架中，我们用可自我意识的概念来表示消费者的反应对社会的影响。自我意识被定义为个人的一贯的趋势来直接关注向内或向外。这个理论识别了自我意识的两种不同类型的人。公开的自我意识的人特别注重其他人对他们的外面的看法，私人自我意识的人更加注重他们内心的想法和感受。在这种情况下，我们假设消费的名誉可能会不同根据对其他人的敏感度。这种提议也和以前的研究一致，它展示了个人行为有所不同的人取决于他们对于人际影响的敏感度。杜布瓦和迪凯纳强调说，“我们相信对消费者和品牌两者之间的直接关系的分析一种提高理解这样一种市场的钥匙。”这种原始的假设是那种私人的或公开的卓越产品的价值来自于这些物件的固有的交际状况。很多存在的研究强调的是对于所扮演的角色地位，在信息交流的关于他们的拥有者和社会关系。英文文献原文：FrontiersofSocialPsychologyArieW.Kruglanski、JosephP.ForgasFrontiersofSocialPsychologyisanewseriesofdomain-specifichandbooks.Thepurposeofeachvolumeistoprovidereaderswithacutting-edgeoverviewofthemostrecenttheoretical,methodological,andpracticaldevelopmentsinasubstantiveareaofsocialpsychology,ingreaterdepththanispossibleingeneralsocialpsychologyhandbooks.Theeditorsandcontributorsareallinternationallyrenownedscholarswhoseworkisatthecutting-edgeofresearch.Scholarly,yetaccessible,thevolumesintheFrontiersseriesareanessentialresourceforseniorundergraduates,postgraduates,researchers,andpractitioners,andaresuitableastextsinadvancedcoursesinspecificsubareasofsocialpsychology.SomeSocialAspectsofLivinginaConsumerSocietyThefollowingsketcheswillillustratethatinaconsumersocietymuchofthebehaviorstudiedbysocialpsychologistsrelatestoconsumerstimuliandconsumerbehavior.Thus,theconsumercontextprovidesarichfieldforthestudyofsocialphenomenaandbehavior.ConsumerDecisionsAreUbiquitousWhetherweareinthesupermarketornot,weareconstantlymakingconsumerdecisions.Weenrollingyms,useourfrequent-flyermilesforavacationresort,buyhealthcare,choosearestaurant,skipdessertforahealthierlifestyle.Infact,mostofourdailydecisionsdonotinvolveexistentialdecisionssuchaswhomtomarryorwhethertohavechildrenornot,butwhethertohaveteaorcoffee,useourcreditcardorpaycash,orotherseeminglytrivialdecisions.Moreover,manyofourdaily(consumer)behaviorsdonotevenrequireintentionaldecisions.Rather,theymaybehabitual,suchasswitchingtoCNNtogetthenewsoraccessingGooglewhenlookingupsomeinformation.Atypicaldayofatypicalpersonisfilledwithcountlessminorconsumerdecisionsortheconsequencesofpreviousdecisions,startingwiththebrandoftoothpasteinthemorningtochoosingamovieafterwork.ConsumerChoicesFulfillaSocial-IdentityFunctionAlthoughformostpeoplebeingaconsumermaynotbecentraltotheiridentity,manyoftheirconsumerdecisionsareneverthelesshighlyidentity-relevantinsofarastheycorrespondtoalargersetofvaluesandbeliefsandexpressimportantaspectsoftheself.Eatingavegetariandietbecauseonedoesnotwanttoendorsecrueltytoanimalsandboycottingclothespotentiallymadebychildlaborersaresomeexamples.SomepeoplebuyaPriusoutofenvironmentalconcerns;othersboycottJapanesecars—suchasthePrius—inordertohelpthelocalcarindustry.Inthisrespect,eventhechoicebetweenCokeandPepsiisnotnecessarilytrivial.PeoplewhocannotdiscriminateCokefromPepsiinablindtest,orwhopreferPepsi,mayneverthelessadheretoCokeasaculturalicon.AttemptstochangetheformulaofCokemetwithangryprotestsandopposition.Clearly,consumerproductsandbrandsdonotonlyfulfillutilitarianneeds(Olson&Mayo,2000;Shavitt,1990).Inaworldofoversupplyanddifferentiatingbrands,manyconsumerschoosebrandsinordertoexpresstheirpersonalityortoaffiliatethemselveswithdesiredothers.TheydonotsimplyuseaMac;theyareMacusers,andswitchingtoanotherbrandofPCwouldbeakintotreason.Fromsoftdrinkstocomputers,brandsmaybecomeanideology.Peoplemayalsoperceiveofproductsasextendedselves(Belk,1988);forexample,theymayidentifywiththeircarsjustastheydowithpets.Likewise,brandsmaydefinesocialgroups.TheHarley-DavidsonClubisalegendaryexample;anInternetsearchrevealedclubsforalmosteverycarbrandandmodel.Inmyhometown,IfoundaVolkswagenNewBeetleClubwhosestatedpurposeistocultivatecontactsbetweenNewBeetleDriversbyorganizingsocialevents(amongothers,avisittoacarcemetery).Ontheroad,driversofthesamecarmodeloftengreeteachother.Apparently,drivingthesamemodelissufficienttoestablishsocialcloseness.Brands,products,andconsumptionhabitsnotonlyhelptoestablishsocialconnectivitybutalsoserveasstatussymbols,definingverticalandhorizontalsocialboundaries.Byusingparticularbrandsorconsumingspecificproducts,peoplecanexpressacertainlifestyleorattempttoconveyaparticularsocialimpression.Subscribingtotheoperaconveysone’ssocialpositionjustasgoingtoamonstertruckracedoes.Whetheryourchoiceofdrinkiswineorbeer,cappuccinoorherbaltea,yourorderexpressesmorethanmerelyyourtasteinbeverages.ConsumerChoicesAffectSocialPerceptionGiventhatbrandsandproductsarepartofsocialexpression,itisnotsurprisingthatpeoplearejudgedbythebrandsandproductstheyuse.Inparticular,productsofasocial-identityfunctionareusedasbasesforinferencesaboutatarget’spersonalitytraits(Shavitt&Nelson,2000).Likewise,smoking,foodchoiceandamountoffoodintakehaveallbeenshowntoaffectsocialimpressions.Dependingonthesubcultureoftheperceiver(age,country),differentpersonalitytraitsareassumedinsmokerscomparedwithnonsmokers(e.g.,Cooper&Kohn,1989;Jones&Carroll,1998).Variousstudiesfoundthateatersofahealthierdietareperceivedasmorefeminineandingeneraljudgedmorefavorablythaneatersofunhealthyfoods(forareviewseeVartanian,Herman,&Polivy,2007).ArguingthataPepsidrinkeristoaCokedrinkerwhataCapuletwastoaMontagueis,ofcourse,anexaggeration,butclearlybrandsmaydistinguishingroupfromout-groupmembers.Possiblythisismostextremeamongteenagers,wherethebrandofjeansisperceivedtodeterminecoolnessandpopularity.Nevertheless,thephenomenonisnotlimitedtoteenculture,astestifiedbythepreviousexamplesofsocialcommunitiesdefinedbysharedbrands.Insum,fromwetversusdryshavingtodrivingaPorscheversusaSmart,consumerbehaviorisusedasacueinpersonperception.Mostlikely,suchcuesalsomanifestinbehaviortowardtheseconsumers.Physicalattacksonwomenwhowearfurareamostextremeexample.AffectiveConsequencesofConsumerBehaviorObviously,consumptionandtheuseofproductsandservicesmaygivepleasureandsatisfactionordispleasureanddissatisfaction.Peoplemayexperiencejoyfromwearinganewsweaterorsufferemotionalconsequenceswhenproductsorservicesfailorcauseinconvenience.Productuseisonlyonesourceofaffectiveconsumerexperiences.Themereactofchoosingandacquisitionisanother.Peopleenjoyordisliketheexperienceofshopping.Theymaytakepleasurefromthefreedomofsimplychoosingbetweendifferentoptions(e.g.,Botti&Iyengar,2004),feeloverwhelmedandconfusedbyanabundanceofoptions(e.g.,Huffman&Kahn,1998),orfeelfrustratedbyalimitedassortmentthatdoesnotmeettheirparticularneeds(e.g.,Chernev,2003).Theymayexperiencegratificationandaboostinself-esteemfromthefactthattheycanaffordaparticularconsumerlifestyleorgrudgethefactthattheycannot.Manydailysourcesofaffectiveexperiencesinvolveconsumerbehaviorinonewayoranother.TheConsumerContextProvidesUniqueSocialInteractionsGranted,werarelyformdeepandmeaningfulrelationshipswithourhairdressersandwaiters.Still,theconsumercontextaffordsmanysocialinteractionsoveraday.Again,theseinteractions—evenifbrief—mayconstituteasourceofaffectiveexperiences.Thesmileofthebarista,thecomplimentfromtheshop-assistant,andthefriendlyhelpfromtheconciergearejustafewexamplesofhowsuchconsumerrelatedinteractionsmaymakeusfeelgood,worthy,andvalued,whereassnappyandruderesponseshavetheoppositeeffect.Besides,thesocialrolesdefinedbytheconsumercontextmayprovideuniqueopportunitiesforparticularbehaviors,interactions,andexperiencesnotinherentinotherroles.Beingaclientorcustomermakesoneexpectrespect,courtesy,andattendancetoone’sneeds.Forsome,thismaybetheonlyroleintheirlifethatgivesthemalimitedsenseofbeinginchargeandhavingothersmeettheirdemands.Togiveanotherexample,complainingisaformofsocialinteractionthatmostlytakesplacewithintheconsumercontext.Asearchfor“complaintbehavior”inthePsycINFOdatabasefoundthat34outof50entrieswerestudiesfromtheconsumercontext.(Therestmostlyrelatedtohealthcare,whichmaytosomeextentalsobeviewedasconsumercontext.)Giventheimportanceoftheconsumercontexttosocialexperiencesandinteractions,itprovidesaprimeopportunityforstudyingthesesocialbehaviors.ConsumerBehaviorModelsinTourismAnalysisStudy

MuhannadM.AAbdallat,Ph.D.HeshamEl-SayedEl-Emam,Ph.D.DepartmentofTourismandHospitality,FacultyofTourismandArcheologyKingSaudUniversityABSTRACTThetheoriesofconsumerdecision-makingprocessassumethattheconsumer’spurchasedecisionprocessconsistsofstepsthroughwhichthebuyerpassesinpurchasingaproductorservice.However,thismightnotbethecase.Noteveryconsumerpassedthroughallthesestageswhenmakingadecisiontopurchaseandinfact,someofthestagescanbeskippeddependingonthetypeofpurchases.Thereasonsforthestudyofconsumer’shelpsfirmsandorganizationsimprovetheirmarketingstrategiesbyunderstandingissuessuchas:Thepsychologyofhowconsumersthink,feel,reason,andselectbetweendifferentalternatives(e.g.,brands,products);Thepsychologyofhowtheconsumerisinfluencedbyhisorherenvironment(e.g.,culture,family,signs,media);Thebehaviorofconsumerswhileshoppingormakingothermarketingdecisions;Limitationsinconsumerknowledgeorinformationprocessingabilitiesinfluencedecisionsandmarketingoutcome;Howconsumers’motivationanddecisionstrategiesdifferbetweenproducts,thatdifferintheirlevelofimportanceorinterestthattheyentailfortheconsumer;andHowmarketerscanadaptandimprovetheirmarketingcampaignsandmarketingstrategiestomoreeffectivelyreachtheconsumer.2.2ConsumerBehaviorThestudyofconsumerbehaviorfocusesonhowindividualsmakedecisionstospendtheiravailableresources(time,money,effort)onconsumption-relateditems(SchiffmanandKanuk,1997).Thefieldofconsumerbehaviorcoversalotofground.AccordingtoSolomon(1996),consumerbehaviorisastudyoftheprocessesinvolvedwhenindividualsorgroupsselect,purchase,use,ordisposeofproducts,services,ideas,orexperiencestosatisfyneedsanddesires.TheofficialdefinitionofconsumerbehaviorgivenbyBelch(1998)is„theprocessandactivitiespeopleengageinwhensearchingfor,selecting,purchasing,using,evaluating,anddisposingofproductsandservicessoastosatisfytheirneedsanddesires’.Behavioroccurseitherfortheindividual,orinthecontextofagroup,oranorganization.Consumerbehaviorinvolvestheuseanddisposalofproductsaswellasthestudyofhowtheyarepurchased.Productuseisoftenofgreatinteresttothemarketer,becausethismayinfluencehowaproductisbestpositionedorhowwecanencourageincreasedconsumption.Andreason(1965)proposedoneoftheearliestmodelsofconsumerbehavior.ThismodelisshowninFigure2.1.Themodelrecognizestheimportanceofinformationintheconsumerdecision-makingprocess.Italsoemphasizestheimportanceofconsumerattitudesalthoughitfailstoconsiderattitudesinrelationtorepeatpurchasebehavior.Asecondmodel,whichconcentratesonthebuyingdecisionforanewproduct,wasproposedbyNicosia(1976).ThismodelisshowninFigure2.2.Themodelconcentratesonthefirm'sattemptstocommunicatewiththeconsumer,andtheconsumers'predispositiontoactinacertainway.ThesetwofeaturesarereferredtoasFieldOne.Thesecondstageinvolvestheconsumerinasearchevaluationprocess,whichisinfluencedbyattitudes.ThisstageisreferredtoasFieldTwo.TheactualpurchaseprocessisreferredtoasFieldThree,andthepost-purchasefeedbackprocessisreferredtoasFieldFour.Thismodelwascriticizedbycommentatorsbecauseitwasnotempiricallytested(Zaltman,PinsonandAngelman,1973),andbecauseofthefactthatmanyofthevariableswerenotdefined(Lunn,1974).Perhaps,themostfrequentlyquotedofallconsumerbehaviormodelsistheHoward-Shethmodelofbuyerbehavior,whichwasdevelopedin1969.ThismodelisshowninFigure2.3.Themodelisimportantbecauseithighlightstheimportanceofinputstotheconsumerbuyingprocessandsuggestswaysinwhichtheconsumerorderstheseinputsbeforemakingafinaldecision.TheHoward-Shethmodelisnotperfectasitdoesnotexplainallbuyerbehavior.Itishowever,acomprehensivetheoryofbuyerbehaviorthathasbeendevelopedasaresultofempiricalresearch(Horton,1984).SchiffmanandKanuk(1997)mentionedthatmanyearlytheoriesconcerningconsumerbehaviorwerebasedoneconomictheory,onthenotionthatindividualsactrationallytomaximizetheirbenefits(satisfactions)inthepurchaseofgoodsandservices.Aconsumerisgenerallythoughtofasapersonwhoidentifiesaneedordesire,makesapurchase,andthendisposesoftheproductduringthethreestagesintheconsumptionprocessinFigure2.2(Solomon,1996)2.2.5Sheth-NewmanGrossModelofConsumptionValuesAccordingtothismodel,therearefiveconsumptionvaluesinfluencingconsumerchoicebehavior.Thesearefunctional,social,conditional,emotional,andepistemicvalues.Anyorallofthefiveconsumptionvaluesmayinfluencethedecision.Variousdisciplines(includingeconomics,sociology,severalbranchesofpsychology,marketingandconsumerbehavior)havecontributedtheoriesandresearchfindingsrelevanttothesevalues,(Shethetal.1991).EachconsumptionvalueinthetheoryisconsistentwithvariouscomponentsofmodelsadvancedbyMaslow(1970),Katona(1971),Katz(1960),andHanna(1980).Fiveconsumptionvaluesformthecoreofthemodel:Thefirstvalue:FunctionalvalueToShethetal.(1991)thefunctionalvalueofanalternativeisdefinedas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternativeforfunctional,utilitarian,orphysicalperformance.Analternativeacquiresfunctionalvaluethroughthepossessionofsalientfunctional,utilitarian,orphysicalattributes.Functionalvalueismeasuredonaprofileofchoiceattributes."Traditionally,functionalvalueispresumedtobetheprimarydriverofconsumerchoice.ThisassumptionunderlieseconomicutilitytheoryadvancedbyMarshall(1890)andStigler(1950)andpopularlyexpressedintermsof"rationaleconomicman."Analternative’sfunctionalvaluemaybederivedfromitscharacteristicsorattributes,(Ferber,1973)suchasreliability,durability,andprice.Forexample,thedecisiontopurchaseaparticularautomobilemaybebasedonfueleconomyandmaintenancerecord.Byidentifyingthedominantfunctionofaproduct(i.e.,whatbenefitsitprovides),marketerscanemphasizethesebenefitsintheircommunicationandpackaging.Advertisementsrelevanttothefunctionpromptmorefavorablethoughtsaboutwhatisbeingmarketedandcanresultinaheightenedpreferencesforboththeadsandtheproduct,(Solomon1996;160).Katz(1960)developedthefunctionaltheoryofattitudes.Heidentifiesfourattitudesbasedonthefunctionalvalues:Utilitarianfunction.Theutilitarianfunctionisrelatedtothebasicprinciplesofrewardandpunishment.Wedevelopsomeofourattitudetowardproductssimplybasedonwhethertheseproductsprovidepleasureorpain.Value-expressivefunction.Attitudethatperformsavalue-expressivefunctionexpressestheconsumers’centralvaluesorself-concept.Apersonformsaproductattitudenotbecauseofitsobjectivebenefits,butbecauseofwhattheproductsaysabouthimorherasaperson.Ego-defensivefunction.Attitudeformedtoprotecttheperson,eitherfromexternalthreatsorinternalfeelings,performanego-defensivefunction.Exampleofthisfunctionisdeodorantcampaignsthatstressthedire,embarrassingconsequencesofbeingcaughtwithunderarmodorinpublic.Knowledgefunction.Someattitudeisformedasaresultofaneedfororder,structure,ormeaning.Thisneedisoftenpresentwhenapersonisinanambiguoussituationorisconfrontedwithanewproduct.Thesecondvalue:SocialvalueShethetal.(1991;161)definedsocialvalueofanalternativeas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternativeassociationwithoneormorespecificsocialgroups.Analternativeacquiressocialvaluethroughassociationwithpositivelyornegativelystereotypeddemographic,socioeconomic,andcultural-ethnicgroups.Socialvalueismeasuredonaprofilechoiceimagery."Socialimageryreferstoallrelevantprimaryandsecondaryreferencegroupslikelytobesupportiveoftheproductconsumption.Consumersacquirepositiveornegativestereotypesbasedontheirassociationwithvarieddemographic(age,sex,religion),socioeconomic(income,occupation),cultural/ethnic(race,lifestyle),orpolitical,ideologicalsegmentsofsociety.Choicesinvolvinghighlyvisibleproducts(e.g.,clothing,jewelry)andgoodservicetobesharedwithothers(e.g.,gifts,productsusedinentertaining)areoftendrivenbysocialvalues.Forexample,aparticularmakeofautomobileisbeingchosenmoreforthesocialimageevokedthanforitsfunctionalperformance.Evenproductsgenerallythoughttobefunctionalorutilitarian,arefrequentlyselectedbasedontheirsocialvalues.Thethirdvalue:EmotionalvalueShethetal.(1991;161)definedemotionalvalueofanalternativeas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternative’scapacitytoarousefeelingsoraffectivestates.Analternativeacquiresemotionalvaluewhenassociatedwithspecificfeelingsorwhenprecipitatingthosefeelings.Emotionalvaluesaremeasuredonaprofileoffeelingsassociatedwiththealternative."Consumptionemotionreferstothesetofemotionalresponseselicitedspecificallyduringproductusageorconsumptionexperience,asdescribedeitherbythedistinctivecategoriesofemotionalexperienceandexpression(e.g.,joy,anger,andfear)orbythestructuraldimensionsunderlyingemotionalcategoriessuchaspleasantness/unpleasantness,relaxation/action,orcalmness/excitement.Goodsandservicesarefrequentlyassociatedwithemotionalresponses(e.g.thefeararousedwhileviewinghorrormovie).Emotionalvalueisoftenassociatedwithaestheticalternatives(e.g.religion,causes).However,moretangibleandseeminglyutilitarianproductsalsohaveemotionalvalues.Forexample,somefoodsarousefeelingofcomfortthroughtheirassociationwithchildhoodexperiences,andconsumersaresometimessaidtohave"loveaffairs"withtheircars.Anumberofdifferentattemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythevariousemotionsthatpeopleexperience.Izard(1977)developsthetaxonomyofaffectiveexperienceapproachthatdescribesthebasicemotionthatpeoplefeel.Hemeasuresemotionsusingtenfundamentalcategories:interest,joy,surprise,sadness,anger,disgust,contempt,fear,shame,andguilt.Thisapproachhasbeenusedextensivelybyconsumerresearchers,forexample,WestbrookandOliver(1991).Thefourthvalue:EpistemicvalueShethetal.(1991;162)definedepistemicvalueas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredfromanalternativescapacitytoarousecuriosity,providenovelty,and/orsatisfyadesireforknowledge.Analternativeacquiresepistemicvaluebyitemsreferringtocuriosity,novelty,andknowledge."Epistemicissuesrefertoreasonsthatwouldjustifytheperceivedsatisfactionofcuriosity,knowledge,andexploratoryneedsofferedbytheproductasachangeofpace(somethingnew,different).Entirelynewexperiencecertainlyprovidesepistemicvalue.However,analternativethatprovidesasimplechangeofpacecanalsobeimbuedwithepistemicvalue.Thealternativemaybechosenbecausetheconsumerisboredorsatiatedwithhisorhercurrentbrand(asintryinganewtypeoffood),iscurious(asinvisitinganewshoppingcomplex),orhasadesiretolearn(asinexperiencinganotherculture).Theconceptofepistemicvalueshasbeeninfluencedbytheoryandbyseveralimportantareasofresearch.Exploratory,noveltyseeking,andvarietyseekingmotiveshavebeensuggestedtoactiveproductsearch,trial,andswitchingbehavior,(HowardandSheth1969).OneofthemostsignificantcontributorstothestudyoftheoptimalstimulationandarousalhasbeenBerlyne(1970),whocontendsthatindividualsaredriventomaintainanoptimalorintermediatelevelofstimulation.Finally,Hirschman(1980)hasadvancedinnovativeness,oraconsumedpropensitytoadoptnewproducts.TheFifthvalue:ConditionalvalueShethetal.(1991;162)definedtheconditionalvalueas:"Theperceivedutilityacquiredbyanalternativeistheresultofthespecificsituationorsetofcircumstancesfacingthechoicemaker.Analternativeacquiresconditionalvalueinthepresenceofantecedentphysicalorsocialcontingenciesthatenhanceitsfunctionalorsocialvalue.Conditionalvalueismeasuredonaprofileofchoicecontingencies."Analternative’sutilitywilloftendependonthesituation.Forexample,someproductsonlyhaveseasonalvalue(e.g.,greetingcards),someareassociatedwithonceinalifeevents(e.g.,weddingdress),andsomeareusedonlyinemergencies(e.g.,hospitalservices).Severalareasofinquiryhavealsoinfluencedconditionalvalue.BasedontheconceptofstimulusdynamismadvancedbyHall(1963),Howard(1969)recognizedtheimportanceoflearningthattakesplaceasaresultofexperiencewithagivensituation.HowardandSheth(1969)thenextendedHoward’searlierworkbydefiningtheconstructinhibitorsasnoninternalizedforcesthatimpedebuyers’preferences.TheconceptofinhibitorswasmoreformallydevelopedbySheth(1974)inhismodelofattitude-behaviorrelationshipasanticipatedsituationsandunexpectedevents.Recognizingthatbehaviorcannotbeaccuratelypredictedbasedonattitudeorintentionalone,anumbero