英语语言学名词解释

Phonetics:thestudyofspeechsounds,whichispartofphonologyandprovidesthemeansfordescribingspeechsounds,anditstudieshowspeechsoundsaremade,transmitted,andreceived.Phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticknowledgeofspeechandthewaysinwhichthesespeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguage.

Consonants:producedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Vowels:producedwithoutsuchobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.Apartfromcomplementarydistribution,aphonememaysometimeshavefreevariants（自由变体）.Phonologicalprocess:atargetoraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontextsAssimilation:isoftenusedsynonymouslywithcoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation(先期协同发音).Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation（后滞协同发音）,asisthecaseofmap.suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征:theaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intonationinvolvestheoccurrenceofrecurringfall-risepatterns,eachofwhichisusedwithasetofrelativelyconsistentmeanings,eitheronsinglewordsorongroupsofwordsofvaryinglength.Morphology:thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents–morphemes.Morphemeisthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.E.er-nation-al-ism,friendlyAnaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).E.g.para-lingual,pseudo-nym,real-ize,booksetc.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.E.g.friends,friendships,girlfriendsetc.Inflectionalaffixes:onlyaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestemanddonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto.InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.Compound:

itreferstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.Syntaxisthestudyofhowsentencesarestructuredorhowwordsarecombinedwithotherstoformsentencesandinwhatorder.Thesyntacticrulesinagrammarmustatleastaccountfor:•thegrammaticalityofsentences•wordorder•structuralambiguity•grammaticalrelations•whetherdifferentstructureshavedifferingmeaningsorthesamemeaning•thecreativeaspectoflanguageBracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.Itiseasiertoseethepartsandsubpartsofthesentenceinatreediagram.SemanticsSemanticsisgenerallyconsideredtobethestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.Connotativemeaning:whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagerefersto.Thematicmeaning:whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.Therearesomedifficultiesintheapproachtoanalyzethemeaningofawordintermsofsemanticcomponents：Onedifficultyisthatmanywordsarepolysemous.Theyhavemorethanonemeaning;consequentlytheywillhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomponentsSecondly,somesemanticcomponentsareseenasbinarytaxonomies.Thirdly,theexampleswehaveseenareonlyconcernedwiththeneatlyorganizedpartsofthevocabulary.Theremaybewordswhosesemanticcomponentsaredifficulttoascertain.Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference:howlanguagereferstothisexternalworld.Sense:thewaypeoplerelatewordstoeachotherwithintheframeworkoftheirlanguageSynonymyisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelationinmeaning.Hyponymyisamatterofclassmembership.Theupperterminthissenserelation,i.e.theclassname,iscalledsuperordinate(上义词),andthelowerterms,themembers,hyponyms（下义词).Theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombinedisusuallyknownastheprincipleofcompositionality(组合性原则).Idioms:cannotbebuiltupasthesumofitsparts.Idiomsarephrasesderivedbymetaphorandothertypesofsemanticextension.Entailment蕴含Sometimesknowingthetruthofonesentenceentailsornecessarilyimpliesthetruthofanothersentence.Contradictionisnegativeentailment,thatis,wherethetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthefalsenessofanothersentence.presupposition预设Inthebranchoflinguisticsknownaspragmatics,apresupposition(orps)isanimplicitassumptionabouttheworldorbackgroundbeliefrelatingtoanutterancewhosetruthistakenforgrantedindiscourse.⏹Semanticmeaning:⏹themoreconstant,inherentsideofmeaning⏹Pragmaticmeaning:⏹themoreindeterminate,themorecloselyrelatedtocontextAlocutionaryact以言指事istheactofsayingsomething;itisanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryact以言行事istheactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.Aperlocutionaryact以言成事istheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbythe