第二章 语音学与音位学

ChapterⅡ

Phonetics

&

Phonology———thestudyofspeechsounds

ChapterⅡ主讲：宋建勇1Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.22.1ThephonicmediumoflanguageSoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage32.2Phonetics2.2.1PhoneticsPhonetics

isthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonetics

studieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.

4ThreebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersuseshisspeechorganstoarticulate/producespeechsounds”（发音语音学）Auditoryphonetics----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”（听觉语音学）Acousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother，“howsoundsaretransmitted”（声学语音学）52.2.2OrgansofspeechSpeechorgans(vocalorgans)(言语器官)------thosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.thelungs（肺），thetrachea(气管),thethroat（咽喉）,thenoseandthemouth6Thevocaltract(声道):ArticulatoryapparatusPharyngealcavityThroatTheoralcavitymouthNasalcavitynose7ThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity

8Vocal

cordsVocalcordsarelocatedinthepharyngealcavityThevocalfoldsareeither(a)apart,(b)closetogether,or(c)totallyclosed.Voiceless(清音):thevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpasseasily[p,s,t]Voiced(浊音):thevocalfoldsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachother[b,z,d]Glottalstop(喉塞音):thevocalfoldsaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem9

Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoiced,whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarevoiceless.10Positionofthevocalfolds:Voiceless:

thevocalfoldsareapart.11Positionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial&thewidestaperture)12Positionofthevocalfolds:

(glottalstop)13ThenasalcavityThenasalcavityisconnectedwiththeoralcavity.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth,thevelum(thesoftpalate),canbedrawnbacktoclosethepassagesothatallairexitingfromthelungscanonlygothroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthisconditionarenotnasalized.Ifthepassageisleftopentoallowairtoexitthroughthenose,thesoundsproducedarenasalizedsounds.142.2.3OrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsTheIPATheInternationalPhoneticAssociation(IPA)(标音法)1897TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(theIPAchart)1888—firstversionThelatestversionwasrevisedin1993andupdatedtwicein1996and2005.1516Broadtranscription&NarrowtranscriptionAbroadtranscriptionisonethatonlytakesaccountofthesounddifferencesthatareimportanttodistinguishwordsfromeachotherinalanguage.Abroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.e.g.

pit/pit/spit/spit/Anarrowtranscriptionattemptstorepresentmoreorlessaccuratelythewayinwhichaparticularspeakerpronounceshiswords.Anarrowtranscriptionisatranscriptionwithlettersymbolstogetherwithdiacritics.e.g.

pit[phit](aspired)spit[spit](unaspired)17Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslant

lines(//),whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets([]).Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthe“broad”transcription18Diacritics------Symbolsaddedtotheletter-symbolstospecifyorbringoutthefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo19Thedistinctionbetween/ph/and/p/doesnotmakeadifferencebetweenwordsinEnglish.Ifwesubstitute/p/for/ph/in/phin/weproduceapeculiarpronunciationofpinbutnotanewword;Butthesubstitutionof/p/for/t/doesmakeadifferenceofword:pin/pin/andtin/tin/aredifferentwordsinEnglish.202.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsThesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoconsonantsandvowels.Consonantsareproducedbyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingwhichissomarkedthataircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionoftheairsothatairescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose.21Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.Inthepronunciationoftheformertheairthatcomesfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenose,orthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritisobstructedinonewayoran­other.

22Thedescriptionoftheconsonantsandvowels●Thedescriptionoftheconsonants----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothreedimensions:Themannerofarticulation(waysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished)Theplaceofarticulation(thepointwhereaconsonantismade)Voicing(whetherthevocalcordsvibrateornot)23●Thedescriptionofthevowels------1)thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back)2)theopennessofthemouth(close,semi-close,semi-open,open)3)lip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded)24consonantsIntermsofmannerofarticulation:1)Stop(plosive)(塞音，爆破音):completeclosureofthearticulatorsinvolved[p,b,t,d,k,g]2)Fricative(磨擦音):theobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemouthsoastocausedefinitelocalfrictionatthepoint[f,v,θ,ð,s,z,∫,ʒ,h]3)Affricates(破擦音):Whentheobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlywiththefrictionresultingfrompartialobstruction(asinfricatives),thesoundsthusproducedareaffricates.[ʧ,ʤ]254)Liquids:Whentheairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongue(thetiporthesides)andtheroofofthemouth,thesoundsthusproducedarecalledliquids.[l,r]5)Nasals:Whenthenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalateatthebackofthemouthandairisallowedtopassthroughit,thesoundsthusproducedarecallednasals.[m,n,ŋ]6)Glides:sometimescalled"semivowels,"arearathermarginalcategory.TheEnglishglidesare

[w]and[j],bothvoiced.Theyareformedinthesamemannerasthevowels[u]and[i],withanarrowerpassagebetweenthelipsorbetweenthetongueandthehardpalatetocausesomeslightnoisefromthelocalobstruction.261)Bilabial(双唇音):madewiththetwolips[p,b,m,w]2)Labiodental(唇齿音):madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth[f,v]3)Dental(齿音):madebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth[θ,ð]4)Alveolar(齿龈音):madewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge[t,d,s,z,n,l,r]5)Palatal(腭音):madewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate[∫,ʒ,ʧ,ʤ,j

]6)Velar(软腭音):madewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate[k,g,

ŋ]7)

Glottal(喉音):

:Thevocalcordsarebroughtmomentarilytogethertocreatetheobstruction.[h]Intermsofplaceofarticulation:consonants27Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:

vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither28Jones:AnOutlineofEnglishPhonetics(1918)Black:IPARed:EnglishVowels（monophthongs）closeSemi-closeSemi-openopen29Vowels（diphthongs）[ei,ai,au,əu,ɔi,iə,ɛə,uə]30Underlinethewordsthatcontainthe

soundasrequired:Acentralvowel:

madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:

reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather31PhonologyPhonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.32Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.33Phone,phoneme,allophone

Phone（音素）Aphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].34Phoneme（音位）Aphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].35Allophone(音位变体)Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.36Freevariants（自由变体）Phoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Freevariantsandfreevariation:Apartfromcomplementarydistribution,aphonememaysometimeshavefreevariants.37Forexample,thefinalconsonantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscase,itisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways.Thedifferencemaybecausedbydialect,habit,orindividualpreference,insteadofanydistributionrule.Freevariationisalsoseeninregionaldifferences.Either,direction38Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair

Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）Phonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].39ComplementarydistributionComplementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts.Allophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces./p/ [p]/

[s]_____ [ph]elsewhere40腭音化41MinimalpairMinimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Thatistosaytwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesound(onephoneme)andwhichalsodifferinmeaning.Forexample,theEnglishwordsbearandpearareaminimalpairastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphoneme/b/and/p/.Whileotherphonemeareidenticalinthesameplace,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boatPhonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofaword.e.g.[t]and[d]:tin/din,tie/die[i:]and[i]:beat/bit,bead/bidTheseimportantunitsarecalledphonemes424344SomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionrule45SequentialrulesSequentialrules----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.46SequentialrulesIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)

thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)

thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)

thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[N]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语……”47AssimilationruleAssimilationrule----assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolarstopinconceivablevelarnasal

inputbilabial48Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.Theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.49Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarization50/v/[f]/z/[s]etc.voicedfricativevoiceless/____voicelessNasalizationrule: [-nasal][+nasal]/____[+nasal]Dentalizationrule: [-dental][+dental]/____[+dental]Velarizationrule: [-velar][+velar]/____[+velar]51EnglishFricativeDevoicing52AssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna跳啊tiaowa……53DeletionruleDeletionrule----ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.54SuprasegmentalfeaturesSuprasegmentalfeatures----thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonation55Syllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.[mAn].Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.But[l],[n]and[m]mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.56Thesyllablestructure

σOnsetRhyme(Peak)NucleusCodakrækt57Opensyllable:

bar,tieClosedsyllable:

bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.58StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticalline[│]isoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelatter,whichmeansthatstressisarelativenotion.59StressAtthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.

WordstressSentencestress60WordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:

VerbconVICTinSULTproDUCEreBEL

NounCONvictINsultPROduceREbel61BLACKboardBLACKbirdblackBOARDblackBIRDCompoundPhraseCompoundvs.PhraseSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:62WordstressThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbag…doer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane…BLACKboardBLACKbird63Primaryvs.SecondaryStress

epiphenomenalunsatisfactorydiscriminationstandardizationcommunicationindustrialization64SentencestressSentencestress----therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.

Heisdrivingmycar.

Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.65Johnboughtaredcar.JOHNboughtaredcar.JohnBOUGHTaredcar.JohnboughtaREDcar.JohnboughtaredCAR.66ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingrat