普通心理学9：智力与心理测验

Chapter9

IntelligenceandPsychologicalTesting智力和心理测验心理学(家)的特点?EmpiricismTheoreticaldiversitySocio_historicalcontextMultifactorialcausation

CulturalheritageHeredityandenvironmentSubjectivityandexperience本章的主要内容智力测验测验的一般概念智力测验的进化智力测验的基本问题极端智力智力迟缓智力超常智力发展遗传的作用环境的作用文化的作用智力测量与研究的新方向问题智力测验有什么用?如何判断一个智力测验?智力迟缓是否先天决定?天才是“白痴”？IQ能决定什么？。。。。TypesofTestMentalability(心理能力)Personality（人格）KeyConceptsinPsychologicalTestingMentalabilitytestsIntelligencetests(智力测验)一般心理能力:信息加工的速度/深度与准确性;Aptitudetests（才能测验）某一类心理潜能（specific）:verbalreasoning,numericalreasoning,abstractreasoning,perceptualspeedandaccuracy,mechanical,spelling,languageusage…Achievementtests（成就测验）已学习过的知识的掌握程度KeyConceptsinPsychologicalTestingPersonalitytestsPersonalitytraits(人格特质)Personalityscale(人格量表)insteadoftestKeyConceptsinPsychologicalTestingPsychologicaltestisastandardized（标准化）

measureofasampleofaperson’sbehavior.Uniformadministration；Uniformscoring；Norm(常模）_M,SDStandardizationgroup（标准化群体）KeyConceptsinPsychologicalTestingReliability（信度）Correlationcoefficient（相关系数）Test-Retestreliability(再测信度)PracticeeffectAlternativeorparallelformsreliability(复本信度)（A、B卷）Split-halfreliability(分半信度)/内在一致性信度（internalconsistencyreliability）Above0.70KeyConceptsinPsychologicalTestingFigure9.3Correlationandreliability.AsexplainedinChapter2,apositivecorrelationmeansthattwovariablescovaryinthesamedirection;anegativecorrelationmeansthattwovariablescovaryintheoppositedirection.Thecloserthecorrelationcoefficientgetstoeither–1.00or+1.00,thestrongertherelationship.Ataminimum,reliabilityestimatesforpsychologicaltestsmustbemoderatelyhighpositivecorrelations.Mostreliabilitycoefficientsfallbetween70and.95.Figure9.2Test-retestreliability（重测信度）.

Subjects’scoresonthefirstadministrationofanassertivenesstestarerepresentedontheleft,andtheirscoresonasecondadministrationofthesametestafewweekslaterareshownontheright.Ifsubjectsobtainsimilarscoresonbothadministrations,asintheleftgraph,thetestmeasuresassertivenessconsistentlyandhashightest-retestreliability.Iftheygetverydifferentscoresonthesecondadministration,asintherightgraph,thetesthaslowreliability.Validity（效度）TheabilityofatesttomeasurewhatitisdesignedtomeasureContentvalidity（内容效度）Achievementtest/educationaltestCriterion-relatedvalidity（效标关联效度）预测能力（aptitudetest）Constructvalidity（结构效度）Abstractpersonalqualities,suchascreativity,intelligence,extraversionHypotheticalconstruct(假设的结构)KeyConceptsinPsychologicalTestingFigure9.4Criterion-relatedvalidity（效标关联效度）.Toevaluatethecriterion-relatedvalidityofapilotaptitudetest,apsychologistwouldcorrelatesubjects’testscoreswithacriterionmeasureoftheiraptitude,suchasratingsoftheirperformanceinapilottrainingprogram.Thevalidityofthetestissupportedifasubstantialcorrelationisfoundbetweenthetwomeasures.Iflittleornorelationshipexistsbetweenthetwosetsofscores,thedatadonotprovidesupportforthevalidityofthetest.Figure9.5Constructvalidity（结构效度）.

Psychologistsevaluateascale’sconstructvaliditybystudyinghowscoresonthescalecorrelatewithavarietyofvariables.Forexample,someoftheevidenceontheconstructvalidityoftheExpressionScalefromthePsychologicalScreeningInventoryissummarizedhere.Thisscaleissupposedtomeasurethepersonalitytraitofextraversion.Asyoucanseeontheleftsideofthisnetworkofcorrelations,thescalecorrelatesnegativelywithmeasuresofsocialintroversion,socialdiscomfort,andneuroticism,justasonewouldexpectifthescaleisreallytappingextraversion.Ontheright,youcanseethatthescaleiscorrelatedpositivelywithmeasuresofsociabilityandself-acceptanceandanotherindexofextraversion,asonewouldanticipate.Atthebottom,youcanseethatthescaledoesnotcorrelatewithseveraltraitsthatshouldbeunrelatedtoextraversion.Thus,thenetworkofcorrelationsdepictedheresupportstheideathattheExpressionScalemeasuresextraversion.信度VS效度如果有人用你的成人身高来评价智力,你感觉如何,这一测量是可信的,但它有效吗?SirFrancisGalton(1869)高尔顿FamilytreestudiesSensorytestReactiontime,sensitivitytohigh-pitchedsounds,colorperception,etc..Correlatedwithschoolorprofessionalperformance;Correlation（相关）,percentiletestscore（比例分）..

智力测量的历史高尔顿有关智力测量的主要思想智力可定量个体差异呈钟型曲线可由客观测验测得两套测验成绩之间的相关程度可通过统计分析确定智力由遗传决定；AlfredBinet(比纳)andTheodoreSimon(1905)西蒙测验内容:判断和推理等抽象思维(非机械记忆力);MentalageHowtocollectitems?60%passinthegroup.比奈-西蒙测验的特点测验分数是当前操作的评估,并非对天生智力的评估;测验是为了更好地分班和教育,并非为了污蔑他们;强调训练可以影响智力发展;依据经验编制测验--看是否有效?--并非依据某一智力理论;LewisTerman(特曼，1916,37,60,73,86)Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScale测验内容：推理能力；IntelligenceQuotient(WilliamStern,1914)WIQ)IQ=MA/CAx100测验修订的理由用于不同的年龄及人群更新不适应社会发展的条目更新常模DavidWechsler(韦克斯勒，1939,49,55,67,91)WechslerAdultIntelligenceScaleDeviationIQ(离差智商)

IQ=100+15(X-M)/SDM，SD为常模特点，X为原始分。Figure9.7Thenormaldistribution.

Manycharacteristicsaredistributedinapatternrepresentedbythisbell-shapedcurve.Thehorizontalaxisshowshowfaraboveorbelowthemeanascoreis(measuredinplusorminusstandarddeviations-标准差).Theverticalaxisisusedtographthenumberofcasesobtainingeachscore.Inanormaldistribution,thecasesaredistributedinafixedpattern.Forinstance,68.26%ofthecasesfallbetween+1and–1standarddeviation.ModernIQscoresindicatewhereaperson’smeasuredintelligencefallsinthenormaldistribution.OnmostIQtests,themeanissetatanIQof100andthestandarddeviationat15.Thus,anIQof130meansthatapersonscored2standarddeviationsabovethemean.AnydeviationIQscorecanbeconvertedintoapercentilescore,whichindicatesthepercentageofcasesobtainingalowerscore.ThementalclassificationsatthebottomofthefigurearedescriptivelabelsthatroughlycorrespondtorangesofIQscores.Dointelligencetestsmeasurepotentialorknowledge?IntellectualpotentialNotaffectedbyyourknowledgebackgroundApplyrelativelycommonknowledgeAblendofpotentialandknowledge关于智力测验的主要问题Predictschoolperformance.50s-.60swith学业成绩可解释成绩总变异量的.25-.36;.60s-.80swith学历IQ说明1/4的社会地位变异,1/6的经济收入变异;父母社会经济地位对社会地位变异的解释量为1/3,对经济收入的解释量为1/5.预测力不如父母社会经济地位?IQ测验可以预测什么？MeasurementAbstractreasoningandverbalfluency(!!)Socialcompetence,practicalproblemsolving,creativity,mechanicalingenuity,artistictalent(??)WorkbyRobertSternberg(1981)R.J.Sternberg(IBMProfessorofPsychology,DepartmentofPsychology,YaleUniversity)原因分析Figure9.8Laypersons’conceptionsofintelligence.

RobertSternbergandhiscolleagues(1981)askedparticipantstolistexamplesofbehaviorscharacteristicofintelligence.Theexamplestendedtosortintothreegroupsthatrepresentthethreetypesofintelligencerecognizedbytheaverageperson:verbalintelligence,practicalintelligence,andsocialintelligence.Jobcomplexitymayplayarolebetweenmentalabilityandjobperformance（Schmidt&Hunter,2004)highJobcomplexityWesterncultureswithEuropeanrootsRapidinformationprocessingDecisiverespondingThenotionthatabilitycanbequantifiedNonWesternculturesPeoplewillbegoodatdoingthingsthatareimportanttothem.(theingredientsofintelligenceareculturalspecific)JapanChina,IndiaTheme3:Psychologyevolvesinasocio-historicalcontext.AreIQtestswidelyusedinothercultures?MentalRetardation(心理迟钝)DiagnosisbasedonIQandadaptivetesting（AmericanAssociationonMentalRetardation-AAMR)—2-3%IQ：2ormoreSDbelowmeanAdaptiveskilldeficits（适应技巧缺陷）Originationbeforeage184levels:mild(轻度),moderate（中度）,severe（重度）,profound（深度）Mildmostcommonbyfar（pp.355）--85%2.1ExtremesofIntelligence:MentalRetardation心理迟缓的诊断:在适应性技能等方面表现出缺陷Figure9.9Theprevalenceandseverityofmentalretardation.

Theoverallprevalenceofmentalretardationisroughly1to3%ofthegeneralpopulation.Thevastmajority(85%)oftheretardedpopulationismildlyretarded.Onlyabout15%oftheretardedpopulationfallsintothesubcategoriesofmoderate,severe,orprofoundretardation.Causes:BiologicalDownsyndrome(唐氏综合症)：21th.染色体三体型；Phenylketonuria(苯丙酮尿症/肝毒性痴呆症)：aminoacidphenylalanine（苯基丙氨酸）---（某种代谢酶的缺陷）--tyrosine(酪氨酸）--（合成各种儿茶酚氨）；Hydrocephaly(水脑)Environmental（Figure9.10）IQ<50IQ60-69:ExtremesofIntelligence:MentalRetardation1:unskilledlaborer;2:semiskilledlaborer;3:skilledmanuallaborer;4:artisantrade;5:professionalnon-manual;Identificationissues–idealsvs.practiceGiftednessvs.highintelligenceIQ2SDabovemeanstandardCreativity,leadership,specialtalent?Stereotypes–weak,sociallyinept,emotionallytroubledLewisTerman(1925)–largelycontradictedstereotypesEllenWinner(1997)–moderately(IQ130-150)foundlygifted(IQ>180)Giftednessandhighachievement–beyondIQ2.2ExtremesofIntelligence:Giftedness(天才)ExceptionalintelligenceExceptionalcommitment(MOTIVATION)ExceptionalcreativityeminenceRenzulli(1986)creativityGenerationofideasthatareOriginalNovelUsefulCreativeachievementsresultfromlongtimehardwork;Dependondivergentthinking;

CorrelatesofcreativityHighlycreativepeople:moreautonomous,introverted,opentonewexperiences;self-confident,andselfaccepting;IQof120Connectionbetweenexceptionalcreativityandmentalillness;Figure9.27Estimatedprevalenceofpsychologicaldisordersamongpeoplewhoachievedcreativeeminence.

Ludwig(1995)studiedbiographiesof1004peoplewhohadclearlyachievedeminenceinoneof18fieldsandtriedtodeterminewhethereachpersonsufferedfromanyspecificmentaldisordersinhisorherlifetime.Thedatasummarizedhereshowtheprevalenceratesfordepressionandforamentaldisorderofanykindforfourfieldswherecreativityisoftenthekeytoachievingeminence.Asyoucansee,theestimatedprevalenceofmentalillnesswasextremelyelevatedamongeminentwriters,artists,andcomposers(butnotnaturalscientists)incomparisontothegeneralpopulation,withdepressionaccountingformuchofthiselevation.Hereditystudies(遗传研究)Familyandtwinstudies(家族和双子研究)Heritabilityestimates:aheritabilityratioisanestimateoftheproportionoftraitvariabilityinapopulationthatisdeterminedbyvariationsingeneticinheritance.(遗传估计)Intelligence:HeredityorEnvironment?LaunchVideoFigure9.12StudiesofIQsimilarity.

ThegraphshowsthemeancorrelationsofIQscoresforpeopleofvarioustypesofrelationships,asobtainedinstudiesofIQsimilarity.Highercorrelationsindicategreatersimilarity.TheresultsshowthatgreatergeneticsimilarityisassociatedwithgreatersimilarityinIQ,suggestingthatintelligenceispartlyinherited(compare,forexample,thecorrelationsforidenticalandfraternaltwins).However,theresultsalsoshowthatlivingtogetherisassociatedwithgreaterIQsimilarity,suggestingthatintelligenceispartlygovernedbyenvironment(compare,forexample,thescoresofsiblingsrearedtogetherandrearedapart).(DatafromMcGueetal.,1993)Figure9.13Theconceptofheritability.

Aheritabilityratioisanestimateoftheportionofvariationinatraitdeterminedbyheredity—withtheremainderpresumablydeterminedbyenvironment—asthesepiechartsillustrate.Typicalheritabilityestimatesforintelligencerangebetweenahighof70%andalowof50%,althoughsomeestimateshavefallenoutsidethisrange.Bearinmindthatheritabilityratiosareestimatesandhavecertainlimitationsthatarediscussedinthetext.Whatistheexactlymeaningofheritabilityestimates?智力变异由遗传变异决定的比例；例如，性别的可遗传性估计为99%身高的可遗传估计为90%；快乐的可遗传估计为40-50%；心理特质的可遗传性估计：20-60%EnvironmentstudiesAdoptionstudies(收养研究)foster&biologicalparents;SiblingsUnrelatedchildren(comparedgroup)Intelligence:HeredityorEnvironment?LaunchVideo遗传、环境和IQ的关系此图表明遗传和环境对IQ得分的贡献。父子间的IQ相似（遗传的影响），但是父亲一儿子的IQ都与社会地位相关（环境的影响）环境对IQ的影响被抚养的儿童的IQ得分黑人和混血儿由中等阶层的白人家庭抚养，他们的IQ值高于正常。因为孩子们来自于IQ值低于平均值的组中，这一数据显示了环境对IQ的影响EnvironmentCumulativedeprivationhypothesis(累积的剥夺假设）Home-environmentandschoolingeffectsOrphanages,poverty…TheFlynneffect(JamesFlynn):GenerationalincreasesinmeasuredIQ;InteractionTheconceptofthereactionrange（遗传决定的可塑范围）Intelligence:HeredityorEnvironment?LaunchVideoFigure9.15Reactionrange.

Theconceptofreactionrangepositsthathereditysetslimitsonone’sintellectualpotential(representedbythehorizontalbars),whilethequalityofone’senvironmentinfluenceswhereonescoreswithinthisrange(representedbythedotsonthebars).Peopleraisedinenrichedenvironmentsshouldscorenearthetopoftheirreactionrange,whereaspeopleraisedinpoor-qualityenvironmentsshouldscorenearthebottomoftheirrange.GeneticlimitsonIQcanbeinferredonlyindirectly,sotheoristsaren’tsurewhetherreactionrangesarenarrow(likeTed’s)orwide(likeChris’s).Theconceptofreactionrangecanexplainhowtwopeoplewithsimilargeneticpotentialcanbequitedifferentinintelligence(compareTomandJack)andhowtwopeoplerearedinenvironmentsofsimilarqualitycanscorequitedifferently(compareAliceandJack).HeritabilityasanExplanationAurthurJensen(1969)Heritalityestimates80%HerrnsteinandMurray(1994)–TheBellCurveRacialdifferencesinaverageintelligence;J.PhillipeRushton&ArthurJensen(2005);LindaGottfredson(2005)GeneticsfactorsaccountforabouthalfofthegapbetweenracesinaverageIQ;CulturalDifferencesinIQFigure9.16Geneticsandbetween-groupdifferencesonatrait.

Kamin’sanalogy(seetext)showshowbetween-groupdifferencesonatrait(theheightofcornplants)couldbeduetoenvironment,evenifthetraitislargelyinherited.Thesamereasoningpresumablyappliestoethnicgroupdifferencesinthetraitofhumanintelligence.EnvironmentasanExplanation:LeonKamin’scornfieldanalogyCulturalbiasonIQtest:Featuredstudy

(Steele&Aronson,1995)X:stereotypevulnerabilityTotestproblem-solvingstrategies;Totestgeneralverbalability;Y:GREverbal.4.4文化与IQ测验的有效性刻板印象威胁ExploringBiologicalindexesandcorrelatesofIntelligenceAttempttofocusonculturefreemeasuresofintelligenceReactiontime(RT)asmeasureofmentalspeed

(ArthurJensen,HansEysenck)Modestcorrelation(0.2-0.3)withIQtest;Inspectiontime:timetomakeaperceptualdiscriminationaccordingtoacriterion(r=0.3--0.4)withIQNewDirectionsintheStudyofIntelligenceExposuredurationProbabilityofcorrectresponse.8514msTask:whetherthelongerlineisontheleftorright?BiologicalindexesofintelligenceBrainsizebyheadsize,r=.15withIQBrainsize(byMRI),r=.35withIQIQandlongevity1932L-IQ组（85以下）；H-IQ组（115以上）1997，L-IQ组存活率数<H-存活率聪明人更长筹?原因:遗传?生活条件?健康习惯?CognitiveprocessesinintelligentbehaviorPrimarilyfocused:Howmanyamountofintelligenceofpeoplehave?---measureapproachUpdatedfocused:Howdopeopleusetheirintelligence?—cognitiveprocessingapproach!NewDirectionsintheStudyofIntelligenceSternberg’striarchictheory