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1996Someofthesecausesarecompleyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthataernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequenceinthefuture.However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld'smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.1997Actually,itisn't,becauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrights,whichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave.Somephilosophersarguethatrightsexistonlywithinasocialcontract,aspartofanexchangeofdutiesandentitlements.Itleadsthediscussiontoextremesattheoutset:itinvitesyoutothinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedeitherwiththeconsiderationhumansextendtootherhumans,orwithnoconsiderationatall.Arguingfromtheviewthathumansaredifferentfromanimalsineveryrelevantrespect,extremistsofthiskindthinkthatanimalslieoutsidetheareaofmoralchoice.Whenthathappens,itisnotamistake:itismankind'sinstinctformoralreasoninginaction,aninstinctthatshouldbeencouragedratherthanlaughedat.1998Butevenmoreimportant,itwasthefarthestthatscientistshadbeenabletolookintotheforwhattheywereseeingwerethepatternsandstructuresthatexisted15billionyearsTheexistenceofthegiantcloudswasvirtuallyrequiredfortheBigBang,firstputforwardinthe1920s,tomaintainitsreignasthedominantexplanationofthecosmos.Astrophysicistsworkingwithground-baseddetectorsattheSouthPoleandballoon-borneinstrumentsareclosinginonsuchstructures,andmayreporttheirfindingssoon.Ifthesmallhotspotslookasexpected,thatwillbeatriumphforyetanotherscientificidea,arefinementoftheBigBangcalledtheinflationaryuniversetheory.Oddthoughitsounds,cosmicinflationisascientificallyplausibleconsequenceofsomerespectedideasinelementary-particlephysics,andmanyastrophysicistshavebeenconvincedforthebetterpartofadecadethatitistrue.1999Whiletherearealmostasmanydefinitionsofhistoryastherearehistorians,modernpracticemostcloselyconformstoonethatseeshistoryastheattempttorecreateandexplainthesignificanteventsofthepast.Interestinhistoricalmethodshasarisenlessthroughexternalchallengetothevalidityofhistoryasaninlectualdisciplineandmorefrominternalquarrelsamonghistoriansthemselves.designedtointerpretthenewformsofevidenceinthehistoricalstudy.Thereisnoagreementwhethermethodologyreferstotheconceptspeculiartohistoricalworkingeneralortotheresearchtechniquesappropriatetothevariousbranchesofhistoricalinquiry.Itappliesequallytotraditionalhistorianswhoviewhistoryasonlytheexternalandinternalcriticismofsources,andtosocialsciencehistorianswhoequatetheiractivitywithspecific2000(71)Undermodernconditions,thisrequiresvaryingmeasuresofcentralizedcontrolandhencethehelpofspecializedscientistssuchaseconomistsandoperationalresearchexperts.(72)Furthermore,itisobviousthatthestrengthofacountry'seconomyisdirectlyboundupwiththeefficiencyofitsagricultureandindustry,andthatthisinturnrestsupontheeffortsofscientistsandtechnologistsofallkinds.Owingtotheremarkabledevelopmentinmasscommunications,peopleeverywherearefeelingnewwantsandarebeingexposedtonewcustomsandideas,whileernmentsareoftenforcedtointroducestillfurtherinnovationsforthereasonsgivenheearlyindustrializedcountriesofEuropetheprocessofindustrialization—withallthefarreachingchangesinsocialpatternsthatfollowed—wasspreadovernearlyacentury,whereasnowadaysadevelonationmayundergothesameprocessinadecadeorso.Additionalsocialstressesmayalsooccurbecauseofthepopulationexplosionorproblemsarisingfrommassmigrationmovements—themselvesmaderelativelyeasynowadaysbymodernmeansoftransport.2001Therewillbeevisionchatshowshostedbyrobots,andcarswithpollutionmonitorsthatwilldisablethemwhentheyoffend.Childrenwillplaywithdollsequippedwith alitychips,computerswithin-builtalitieswillberegardedasworkmatesratherthantools,relaxationwillbeinfrontofevision,anddigitalagewillhavePearsonhaspiecedtogethertheworkofhundredsofresearchersaroundtheworldtoproduceauniquemillenniumtechnologycalendarthatgivesthelatestdateswhenwecanexpecthundredsofkeybreakthroughsanddiscoveriestotakeplace.Butthat,Pearsonpointsout,isonlythestartofman-machineintegration:“Itwillbethebeginningofthelongprocessofintegrationthatwillultimayleadtoafullyelectronichumanbeforetheendofthenextcentury.”Andhomeapplianceswillalso esosmartthatcontrollingandoperatingthemwillresultinthebreakoutofanewpsychologicaldisorder—kitchenrage.2002Onedifficultyisthatalmostallofwhatiscalledbehavioralsciencecontinuestotracebehaviortostatesofmind,feelings,traitsofcharacter,humannature,andsoon.Thebehavioralscienceshavebeenslowtochangepartlybecausetheexplanatoryitemsoftenseemtobedirectlyobservedandpartlybecauseotherkindsofexplanationshavebeenhardtofind.Theroleofnaturalselectioninevolutionwasformulatedonlyalittlemorethanahundredyearsago,andtheselectiveroleoftheenvironmentinshaandmaintainingthebehavioroftheindividualisonlybeginningtoberecognizedandstudied.Theyarethepossessionsoftheautonomous(self-erning)manoftraditionaltheory,andtheyareessentialtopracticesinwhicha isheldresponsibleforhisconductandgivencreditforhisachievements.Untiltheseissuesareresolved,atechnologyofbehaviorwillcontinuetoberejected,andwithitpossiblytheonlywaytosolveourproblems.2003Furthermore,humanshavetheabilitytomodifytheenvironmentinwhichtheylive,thussubjectingallotherlifeformstotheirownpeculiarideasandfancies.Socialscienceisthatbranchofinlectualenquirywhichseekstostudyhumansandtheirendeavorsinthesamereasoned,orderly,systematic,anddispassionedmannerthatnaturalscientistsuseforthestudyofnaturalphenomena.Theemphasisondatagatheredfirst-hand,combinedwithacross-culturalbroughttotheysisofculturespastandpresent,makesthisstudyauniqueanddistinctlyimportantsocialTylordefinedcultureas“...thatcomplexwholewhichincludesbelief,art,morals,law,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.”Thus,theanthropologicalconceptof“culture,"liketheconceptof“set”inmathematics,isanconceptwhichmakespossibleimmenseamountsofconcreteresearchandunderstanding.2004TheGreeksassumedthatthestructureoflanguagehadsomeconnectionwiththeprocessofthought,whichtookrootinEuropelongbeforepeoplerealizedhowdiverselanguagescouldbe.Weareobligedtothembecausesomeoftheselanguageshavesincevanished,asthepeopleswhospokethemdiedoutorbecameassimilatedandlosttheirnativelanguages.ThenewlydescribedlanguageswereoftensostrikinglydifferentfromthewellstudiedlanguagesofEuropeandSoutheastAsiathatsomescholarsevenaccusedBoasandSapiroffabricatingtheirBeinginterestedintherelationshipoflanguageandthought,Whorfdevelopedtheideathatthestructureoflanguagedeterminesthestructureofhabitualthoughtmasociety.Whorfcametobelieveinasortoflinguisticdeterminismwhich,initsstrongestform,statesthatlanguageimprisonsthemind,andthatthegrammaticalpatternsinalanguagecanproducefar-reachingconsequencesforthecultureofasociety.2005evisionisoneofthemeansbywhichthesefeelingsarecreatedandconveyed--andperhapsneverbeforehasitservedsomuchtoconnectdifferentpeoplesandnationsasintherecenteventsinEurope.InEurope,aselsewhere,multi-mediagroupshavebeenincreasinglysuccessful:groupswhichbringtogetherevision,radionewspapers,magazinesandpublishinghousesthatworkinrelationtooneanother.Thisalonedemonstratesthattheevisionbusinessisnotaneasyworldtosurvivein,afactunderlinedbystatisticsthatshowthatoutofeightyEuropeanevisionnetworksnolessthan50%tookalossin1989.Creatinga“Europeanidentity”thatrespectsthedifferentculturesandtraditionswhichgotomakeuptheconnectingfabricoftheOldContinentisnoeasytaskanddemandsastrategicchoiceIndealingwithachallengeonsuchascale,itisnoexaggerationtosay“Unitedwestand,dividedwefall”2006IshalldefinehimasanindividualwhohaselectedashisprimarydutyandpleasureinlifetheactivityofthinkinginSocratic()wayaboutmoralproblems.Hisfunctionisogoustothatofajudge,whomustaccepttheobligationofrevealinginasobviousamanneraspossiblethecourseofreasoningwhichledhimtohisdecision.Ihaveexcludedhimbecause,whilehis plishmentsmaycontributetothesolutionofmoralproblems,hehasnotbeenchargedwiththetaskofapproachinganybutthefactualaspectsofthoseButhisprimarytaskisnottothinkaboutthemoralcode,whichernshisactivity,anymorethanabusinessmanisexpectedtodedicatehisenergiestoanexplorationofrulesofconductinTheymayteachverywellandmorethanearntheirsalaries,butmostofthemmakelittleornoindependentreflectionsonhumanproblemswhichinvolvemoraljudgment.2007Traditionally,legallearninghasbeenviewedinsuchinstitutionsasthespecialpreserveoflawyers,ratherthananecessarypartoftheinlectualequipmentofaneducated Ontheother,itlinkstheseconceptstoeverydayrealitiesinamannerwhichisparalleltothelinksjournalistsforgeonadailybasisastheycoverandcommentonthenews.Buttheideathatthejournalistmustunderstandthelawmoreprofoundlythananordinarycitizenrestsonanunderstandingoftheestablishedconventionsandspecialresponsibilitiesofthenewsmedia.Infact,itisdifficulttoseehowjournalistswhodonothaveacleargraspofthebasicfeaturesoftheCanadianConstitutioncandoacompetentjobonpoliticalstories.Whilecommentandreactionfromlawyersmayenhancestories,itispreferableforjournaliststorelyontheirownnotionsofsignificanceandmaketheirownjudgments.2008hebelievesthatthisverydifficultymayhavehadthecompensatingadvantageofforcinghimtothinklongandintentlyabouteverysentence,andthusenablinghimtodetecterrorsinreasoningandinhisownobservations.Heasserted,also,thathispowertofollowalongandpurely trainofthoughtwasverylimited,forwhichreasonhefeltcertainthathenevercouldhavesucceededwithmathematics.Ontheotherhand,hedidnotacceptaswellfoundedthechargemadebysomeofhiscriticsthat,whilehewasagoodobserver,hehadnopowerofreasoning.Headdshumblythatperhapshewas“superiortothecommonrunofmeninnoticingthingswhicheasilyescapeattention,andinobservingthemcarefully.”Darwinwasconvincedthatthelossofthesetasteswasnotonlyalossofhappiness,butmightpossiblybeinjurioustothein lect,andmoreprobablytothemoralcharacter.2009Itmaybesaidthatthemeasureoftheworthofanysocialinstitutionisitseffectinenlargingandimprovingexperience;butthiseffectisnotapartofitsoriginalmotive.Onlygraduallywastheby-productoftheinstitutionnoted,andonlymoregraduallystillwasthiseffectconsideredasadirectivefactorintheconductoftheinstitution.Whileitiseasytoignoreinourcontactwiththemtheeffectofouractsupontheirdisposition,itisnotsoeasyasindealingwithadults.Sinceourchiefbusinesswiththemistoenablethemtoshareinacommonlifewecannothelpconsideringwhetherornoweareformingthepowerswhichwillsecurethisability.Wearethusledtodistinguish,withinthebroadeducationalprocesswhichwehavebeensofarconsidering,amoreformalkindofeducation--thatofdirecttuitionorschooling.2010Scientistsjumpedtotherescuewithsomedistinctlyshakyevidencetotheeffectthatinsectswouldeatusupifbirdsfailedtocontrolthem.butwehaveatleastdrawnnearthepointofadmittingthatbirdsshouldcontinueasamatterofintrinsicright,regardlessofthepresenceorabsenceofeconomicadvantagetous.Timewaswhenbiologistssomewhatoverworkedtheevidencethatthesecreaturespreservethehealthofgamebykillingth
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