我第一组Chapter-13-Language-课件

LanguageandGender

LanguageandGender1LanguageandGenderIntroductionGenderDifferencesinlanguageSomePossibleExplanationsLanguageandGenderIntroductio2IntroductionIntroduction3Differencesbetweensexes1).femaleshavemorefatandlessmusclethanmales2).femalesarenotasstrongandweighless.3).femalesmaturemorerapidlyandlivelonger4).femalesvoiceisdifferentfrommales5).femalesusedifferentrangesofverbalskillsfrommales.GenderDifferencesDifferencesbetweensexesGende42.Genderdifferencesresultedfromdifferentsocializationpractices.Womenliveslongerthanmenbecauseofthedifferentrolestheyplayinsociety,anddifferentjobstheytendtofill.Voicequalityisaccentuatedbybeliefsaboutwhatmenandwomenshouldsoundlikewhentheytalk.Differentupbringingmaybeexplainedthedifferencesinverbalskills.Thepoorperformanceofboysinschoolincaparisonstogirlsmaybesocio-culturalratherthangenetic.2.Genderdifferencesresulted5ⅰ.IntroductionAmajortopicinsociolinguisticsistheconnectionbetweenthestructures,vocabularies,andwaysofusingparticularlanguagesandthesocialrolesofthemenandwomenwhospeaktheselanguages.ⅰ.IntroductionAmajortopicin6大肠菌群及检验大肠菌群并非细菌学分类命名，而是卫生细菌领域的用语，它不代表某一个或某一属细菌，而指的是具有某些特性的一组与粪便污染有关的细菌，这些细菌在生化及血清学方面并非完全一致，其定义为：需氧及兼性厌氧、在37℃能分解乳糖产酸产气的革兰氏阴性无芽胞杆菌。一般认为该菌群细菌可包括大肠埃希氏菌、柠檬酸杆菌、产气克雷白氏菌和阴沟肠杆菌等。大肠菌群分布较广，在温血动物粪便和自然界广泛存在。调查研究表明，大肠菌群细菌多存在于温血动物粪便、人类经常活动的场所以及有粪便污染的地方，人、畜粪便对外界环境的污染是大肠菌群在自然界存在的主要原因。粪便中多以典型大肠杆菌为主，而外界环境中则以大肠菌群其他型别较多。

大肠菌群及检验大肠菌群并非细菌学分类命名，而是卫生细菌领域7大肠菌群检验方法由于大肠菌群指的是具有某些特性的一组与粪便污染有关的细菌，即：需氧及兼性厌氧、在37℃能分解乳糖产酸产气的革兰氏阴性无芽胞杆菌。因此大肠菌群的检测一般都是按照它的定义进行。目前国内采用的进出口食品大肠菌群检测方法主要有国家标准和原国家商检局制订的行业标准。两个标准方法在检测程序上略有不同。大肠菌群检验方法由于大肠菌群指的是具有某些特性的一组与粪便8ⅰ.IntroductionInthischapter,RonaldWardhaughwillattempttoseewhatsomeoftheunderlyingfactsareandtoavoidthekindsofrhetoricanddialecticthatcharacterizemuchofthediscussionof“sexisminlanguage”,atopicwhichoftenseemstoinvite‘large’argumentsbasedon‘small’data.ⅰ.IntroductionInthischapter,9ⅰ.Introduction:SexvsGenderSexisbiologicallydeterminedwhereasgenderisasocialconstructinvolvingthewholegamutofpsychological,social,andculturaldifferencesbetweenmalesandfemales.Inthisview,genderrolesratherthansexrolesshouldbeourconcernindiscussions.ⅰ.Introduction:SexvsGenderS10ⅰ.Introduction:purposesOurpurposewillbetoevaluatethatevidence:1)justhowgoodistheexampleinthischapter?2)However,themainpurposeistotrytodiscover,whenindeedthereisgoodevidence,whatitisgoodevidenceof.3)Thatoflanguagescanbesexist?ⅰ.Introduction:purposesOurpu114)Thatthosewhoseuseoflanguagesaresexist?5)Thatlanguage-learningisalmostinevitablytiedtogender-learning?6)Thatchangeisnotdesirablebutpossible?4)Thatthosewhoseuseoflang12GenderDifferencesinlanguageGenderDifferencesinlanguage13ⅱ.GenderDifferencesinlanguageNumerousobservershavedescribedwomen’sspeechasbeingdifferentfromthatofmen.Thereisabiashere:men’sspeechusuallyprovidesthenormagainstwhichwomen’sspeechisjudged.ⅱ.GenderDifferencesinlangu14ⅱ.ThemostfamousexampleInthelinguisticliteratureperhapsthemostfamousexampleofdifferentiationbetweenthesexesisfoundintheLesserAntillesofWestIndiesamongtheCaribIndians.MaleandfemaleCaribsspeakdifferentlanguages.AndtheboyslearnCaribfromtheirfathersandgirlslearnArawakfromtheirmothers.Whatdifferencesthereareactuallydonotresultintwoseparateordifferentlanguages,butratheronelanguagewithnoticeablesex-basedcharacteristics.ⅱ.ThemostfamousexampleInt15ⅱ.PresentationofdifferencesinlanguagesThepresentationsofgenderdifferences:phonologicaldifferences

morphologyandvocabularydifferences

grammaticaldifferencesⅱ.Presentationofdifferences16ⅱ.Examplesofphonologicaldifferences

E.g.1,inGrosVentre,womenhavepalatalizedvelarwhilemenhavepalatalizeddentalstops.E.g.2,inBengall,menoftensubstitute/l/forinitial/n/;women,childrenanduneducateddonotdothis.E.g.3,innortheastAsianlanguage,Yukahir,bothwomenandchildrenhave/ts/and/dz/wheremenhave/tj/and/dj/.E.g.4,inChukchi,menoftendrop/n/and/t/whentheyoccurwithvowels.E.g.5,inMontreal,manymorementhanwomendonotpronouncethelinthepronounsandarticlesil,elle,la,andles.E.g.6,schoolgirlsinScotlandpronouncethetinthewordslikewaterandgotmoreoftenthanschoolboyswhoprefertosubstituteaglottalstop.ⅱ.Examplesofphonologicaldi17ⅱ.Otherexamplesphonologicaldifferences

HaasobservedthatinKoasati,amongothersex-linkeddifferences,menoftenpronouncedansattheendofverbsbutwomendonot.Womenwillbeadvisedtospeakmorelikeamaninordertofillapositionpreviouslyfilledonlybymen.SuchasMargaretThatcher.ⅱ.Otherexamplesphonological18ⅱ.morphologyandvocabularydifferencesinEnglishIntheareaofmorphologyandvocabulary,manyofthestudieshavefocusedonEnglish.Lakoffclaims1)thatwomenusecolorwordslikemauve,beige,aquamarine,lavender,andmagentabutmostmendonot.2)Womenoftenuseadjectivessuchasadorable,charming,divine,lovelyandsweetwhereasmenrarelyuseit.3)Womenarealsosaidtohavetheirownvocabularyforemphasizingcertaineffectsonthem,suchassogood,suchfun,etc.4)TheEnglishlanguagemakescertaindistinctionsofsex-basedkind,suchasactor-actress,waiter-waitress,andmaster-mistress.Lakoffclearlyestablishedherpointthat‘equivalent’wordsreferringtomenandwomendohavequitedifferentassociationsinEnglish.ⅱ.morphologyandvocabulary19ⅱ.SexisminlanguageThegendersystemsofpronounsinsomelanguages.he-she-it‘natural’gendersystemofEnglish.Le-laorder-die-das‘grammatical’gendersystemsofFrenchandGerman.Chinese,Japanese,Persian,andTurkishdonotmakethekindsofsexdistinctionsEnglishmakesthroughitssystemofpronouns.ButwecannotsaythatthemaleswhospeaktheselanguagesarelesssexistthanmaleswhospeakEnglish.ⅱ.SexisminlanguageThegende20SexdifferencesinwordchoiceJapanesewomenshowtheyarewomenwhentheyspeak.Eg.Byuseofasentence-finalparticleneoranotherparticlewa.AmalespeakerinJapanreferstohimselfasbikuorore,whereasafemaleuseswatasioratasi.Differentlanguagesdoseemtoprescribedifferentformsforusebymenandwomen.Sexdifferencesinwordchoice21OtherexamplesTheYanalanguageofCaliforniacontainsspecialformsforuseinspeecheitherbyortowomen.thelanguageofDyirbalpeopleofNorthQueensland,Australia,whohaveaspeciallanguagewhichissex-differentiatedinarathernovelway.Thenormaleverydaylanguageisusedbybothsexes,butifyouareamanandyourmother-in-lawispresent,youusea‘mother-in-law’variety,Dyalguy.OtherexamplesTheYanalanguag22consequencesofsuchstudiesOneoftheconsequencesofsuchworkisthatthereisnowagreaterawarenessinsomepartsofthecommunitythatsubtle,andsometimesnotsosubtle,distinctionsaremadeinthevocabularychoiceusedtodescribemenandwomen.AlthoughtherearegenderdistinctionsinEnglishvocabulary,itcan’tfollowthatlanguageswithgenderdistinctionsaresexist.consequencesofsuchstudiesOn23ⅱ.GenderDifferencesingrammaticalmatters

Brendclaimsthattheintonationpatternsofmenandwomenvarysomewhat,womenusingcertainpatternsassociatedwithsurpriseandpolitenessmoreoftenthanmen.Lakoffsaysthatwomenmayansweraquestionwithastatementthatemploystherisingintonationpatternusuallyassociatedwithaquestionratherthanthefallingintonationpatternassociatedwithmakingafirmstatement.Womenoftenaddtagquestionstostatements,suchas‘youarealawyer,aren’tyou?’.ⅱ.GenderDifferencesingramm24OtherDifferencesWomenandmenmayhavedifferentparalinguisticsystemsandmoveandgesturedifferently.Thesuggestionhasbeenmadethattheseoftenrequirewomentoappeartobesubmissivetomen.Womenarealsooftennamed,titled,andaddresseddifferentlyfrommen.OtherDifferencesWomenandmen25DifferentstudiesFischer’sworkshowhowyoungboysandgirlsdifferincertainchoicestheymake.Labov’sstudiesrevealednoticeablegenderdifferencesinadultspeech.Jahangir'sstudyreportedbetweenthespeechofmalesandfemales.Gal’sstudyshowedhowitisnotonlywhatwomensaybutwhotheyarewillingtosayittothatisimportant.DifferentstudiesFischer’swor26MorestudiesaboutconversationofdifferentgendersInconversationsinvolvingmembersofbothsexesmanyresearchersagreethatmenspeakmorethanwomendo.Whenmentalkedtomen,thetopicsareaboutcompetitionandteasing,sports,aggression,anddoingthings.Whenwomentalkedtowomen,thetopicsareabouttheself,feelings,affiliationwithothers,homeandfamily.Whenthetwosexesinteracted,mentendedtotaketheinitiativeinconversation.Themenspokelessaggressivelyandcompetitivelyandthewomenreducedtheiramountoftalkabouthomeandfamilysoastoachievesomekindofaccommodation.Morestudiesaboutconversati27ⅲ.Cross-sexconversationWhatwasimportantindeterminingwhotalkedwasthecontextandthestructureofthesocialinteractionwithinwhichgenderdifferencesareobserved.Incross-sexconversationsmenfrequentlyinterruptwomenbutwomenmuchlessfrequentlyinterruptmen.Thereisevidencethatincross-sexconversationwomenaskmorequestionsthanmen,encourageotherstospeak,usemoresignalslikembmmtoencourageotherstocontinuespeaking,usemoreinstancesofyouandwe,anddonotprotestasmuchasmenwhentheyareinterrupted.ⅲ.Cross-sexconversationWhat28ⅲ.Same-sexconversationWomenandmeninthesamespeechcommunity,speakinginsamesexpairsinthesameconversationalcontext,withequalaccesstotheconversationalfloor,donotdiffereitherinthefrequencyoftheuseofyouknoworinthenumberofquestionsuttered.byFreedandGreenwoodⅲ.Same-sexconversationWomen29ⅲ.SomePossibleExplanationsⅲ.SomePossibleExplanations30ⅲ.SomePossibleExplanationsWhatarethereasonsofthegenderdifferencesinlanguage?ⅲ.SomePossibleExplanationsW31ⅲ.ThreeclaimsThe1stisthatmenandwomenarebiologicallydifferentandthatthisdifferenceshasseriousconsequencesforgender.The2ndclaimisthatsocialorganizationisbestperceivedassomekindofhierarchicalsetofpowerrelationships.Thisisasocialratherthanapsychologicalfact.Languagebehaviorreflectsthesocialdominanceofmen.The3rdclaimisthatmenandwomenaresocialbeingswhohavelearnedtoactincertainways.Itdosenotactuallydenythe2ndclaim.ⅲ.ThreeclaimsThe1stistha32ⅲ.SupportersofthethirdclaimMaltzandBorkerproposedthatmenandwomencomefromdifferentsociolinguisticsubcultures,atleastinNorthAmerica.Theyhavelearnedtododifferentthingswithlanguage,andwhenthetwosexestrytocommunicatewitheachother,theresultmaybemiscommunication.DeborahTannenclaimsthatwomenandmenhavebeenraisedtoliveindifferentsub-cultures,so,cross-culturalcommunication’canbedifficult.Partofthesocializationprocessislearningnotonlygender-relatedactivitiesandattitudesbutgenderrelatedlanguagebehavior.ⅲ.Supportersofthethirdcla33ⅲ.Holmessays,“Thedifferencesbetweenwomenandmeninwaysofinteractingmaybetheresultofdifferentsocializationandacculturationpatterns.Ifwelearnthewaysoftalkingmainlyinsingle-sexpeergroups,thenthepatternswelearnarelikelytobesex-specific.Andthekindofmiscommunicationwhichundoubtedlyoccursbetweenwomenandmenwillbeattributabletothedifferentexpectationseachsexhasofthefunctionoftheinteraction,andthewaysitisappropriatelyconducted.ⅲ.Holmessays,“Thedifferen34ⅲ.AnotherexamplesupportingthethirdclaimManyofcharacteristicsofmeninthisspeechcommunitymightbeassociatedwiththewomen’sspeechinanothercommunity.Theyuselanguagesubtly,trytomaintaingoodcommunicationintheirrelationships,andavoidconfrontations.Theypreferindirectnessasanexpressionofrespect,andtheyareconsideredtobeablespeechmakers:men’srequestsaretypicallydelayedandinexplicit,accusationsimpreciseandcriticismssubtle.ⅲ.Anotherexamplesupporting35ⅲ.HowdowomenspeakinMalagasy?Theyopenlyanddirectlyexpressangertowardsothers.Theyalsocriticizeandconfront,theycanbedirectandstraightforward.Theydotheinteractingwithstrangers,buyingandselling,andreprimandingchildren,andsoon.However,menprefernottodothesethings.ⅲ.HowdowomenspeakinMalag36ⅲ.ButthemostinterestingfactisthatitisindirectnessofspeechwhichisprizedinMalagasysocietyandregardedastraditional,anditisthemenwhoemployit.Thissuggeststhatmenandwomendifferinthekindsoflanguagetheyusebecausemenandwomenoftenfilldistinctlydifferentrolesinsociety.ⅲ.Butthemostinteresting37LanguageandGender

LanguageandGender38LanguageandGenderIntroductionGenderDifferencesinlanguageSomePossibleExplanationsLanguageandGenderIntroductio39IntroductionIntroduction40Differencesbetweensexes1).femaleshavemorefatandlessmusclethanmales2).femalesarenotasstrongandweighless.3).femalesmaturemorerapidlyandlivelonger4).femalesvoiceisdifferentfrommales5).femalesusedifferentrangesofverbalskillsfrommales.GenderDifferencesDifferencesbetweensexesGende412.Genderdifferencesresultedfromdifferentsocializationpractices.Womenliveslongerthanmenbecauseofthedifferentrolestheyplayinsociety,anddifferentjobstheytendtofill.Voicequalityisaccentuatedbybeliefsaboutwhatmenandwomenshouldsoundlikewhentheytalk.Differentupbringingmaybeexplainedthedifferencesinverbalskills.Thepoorperformanceofboysinschoolincaparisonstogirlsmaybesocio-culturalratherthangenetic.2.Genderdifferencesresulted42ⅰ.IntroductionAmajortopicinsociolinguisticsistheconnectionbetweenthestructures,vocabularies,andwaysofusingparticularlanguagesandthesocialrolesofthemenandwomenwhospeaktheselanguages.ⅰ.IntroductionAmajortopicin43大肠菌群及检验大肠菌群并非细菌学分类命名，而是卫生细菌领域的用语，它不代表某一个或某一属细菌，而指的是具有某些特性的一组与粪便污染有关的细菌，这些细菌在生化及血清学方面并非完全一致，其定义为：需氧及兼性厌氧、在37℃能分解乳糖产酸产气的革兰氏阴性无芽胞杆菌。一般认为该菌群细菌可包括大肠埃希氏菌、柠檬酸杆菌、产气克雷白氏菌和阴沟肠杆菌等。大肠菌群分布较广，在温血动物粪便和自然界广泛存在。调查研究表明，大肠菌群细菌多存在于温血动物粪便、人类经常活动的场所以及有粪便污染的地方，人、畜粪便对外界环境的污染是大肠菌群在自然界存在的主要原因。粪便中多以典型大肠杆菌为主，而外界环境中则以大肠菌群其他型别较多。

大肠菌群及检验大肠菌群并非细菌学分类命名，而是卫生细菌领域44大肠菌群检验方法由于大肠菌群指的是具有某些特性的一组与粪便污染有关的细菌，即：需氧及兼性厌氧、在37℃能分解乳糖产酸产气的革兰氏阴性无芽胞杆菌。因此大肠菌群的检测一般都是按照它的定义进行。目前国内采用的进出口食品大肠菌群检测方法主要有国家标准和原国家商检局制订的行业标准。两个标准方法在检测程序上略有不同。大肠菌群检验方法由于大肠菌群指的是具有某些特性的一组与粪便45ⅰ.IntroductionInthischapter,RonaldWardhaughwillattempttoseewhatsomeoftheunderlyingfactsareandtoavoidthekindsofrhetoricanddialecticthatcharacterizemuchofthediscussionof“sexisminlanguage”,atopicwhichoftenseemstoinvite‘large’argumentsbasedon‘small’data.ⅰ.IntroductionInthischapter,46ⅰ.Introduction:SexvsGenderSexisbiologicallydeterminedwhereasgenderisasocialconstructinvolvingthewholegamutofpsychological,social,andculturaldifferencesbetweenmalesandfemales.Inthisview,genderrolesratherthansexrolesshouldbeourconcernindiscussions.ⅰ.Introduction:SexvsGenderS47ⅰ.Introduction:purposesOurpurposewillbetoevaluatethatevidence:1)justhowgoodistheexampleinthischapter?2)However,themainpurposeistotrytodiscover,whenindeedthereisgoodevidence,whatitisgoodevidenceof.3)Thatoflanguagescanbesexist?ⅰ.Introduction:purposesOurpu484)Thatthosewhoseuseoflanguagesaresexist?5)Thatlanguage-learningisalmostinevitablytiedtogender-learning?6)Thatchangeisnotdesirablebutpossible?4)Thatthosewhoseuseoflang49GenderDifferencesinlanguageGenderDifferencesinlanguage50ⅱ.GenderDifferencesinlanguageNumerousobservershavedescribedwomen’sspeechasbeingdifferentfromthatofmen.Thereisabiashere:men’sspeechusuallyprovidesthenormagainstwhichwomen’sspeechisjudged.ⅱ.GenderDifferencesinlangu51ⅱ.ThemostfamousexampleInthelinguisticliteratureperhapsthemostfamousexampleofdifferentiationbetweenthesexesisfoundintheLesserAntillesofWestIndiesamongtheCaribIndians.MaleandfemaleCaribsspeakdifferentlanguages.AndtheboyslearnCaribfromtheirfathersandgirlslearnArawakfromtheirmothers.Whatdifferencesthereareactuallydonotresultintwoseparateordifferentlanguages,butratheronelanguagewithnoticeablesex-basedcharacteristics.ⅱ.ThemostfamousexampleInt52ⅱ.PresentationofdifferencesinlanguagesThepresentationsofgenderdifferences:phonologicaldifferences

morphologyandvocabularydifferences

grammaticaldifferencesⅱ.Presentationofdifferences53ⅱ.Examplesofphonologicaldifferences

E.g.1,inGrosVentre,womenhavepalatalizedvelarwhilemenhavepalatalizeddentalstops.E.g.2,inBengall,menoftensubstitute/l/forinitial/n/;women,childrenanduneducateddonotdothis.E.g.3,innortheastAsianlanguage,Yukahir,bothwomenandchildrenhave/ts/and/dz/wheremenhave/tj/and/dj/.E.g.4,inChukchi,menoftendrop/n/and/t/whentheyoccurwithvowels.E.g.5,inMontreal,manymorementhanwomendonotpronouncethelinthepronounsandarticlesil,elle,la,andles.E.g.6,schoolgirlsinScotlandpronouncethetinthewordslikewaterandgotmoreoftenthanschoolboyswhoprefertosubstituteaglottalstop.ⅱ.Examplesofphonologicaldi54ⅱ.Otherexamplesphonologicaldifferences

HaasobservedthatinKoasati,amongothersex-linkeddifferences,menoftenpronouncedansattheendofverbsbutwomendonot.Womenwillbeadvisedtospeakmorelikeamaninordertofillapositionpreviouslyfilledonlybymen.SuchasMargaretThatcher.ⅱ.Otherexamplesphonological55ⅱ.morphologyandvocabularydifferencesinEnglishIntheareaofmorphologyandvocabulary,manyofthestudieshavefocusedonEnglish.Lakoffclaims1)thatwomenusecolorwordslikemauve,beige,aquamarine,lavender,andmagentabutmostmendonot.2)Womenoftenuseadjectivessuchasadorable,charming,divine,lovelyandsweetwhereasmenrarelyuseit.3)Womenarealsosaidtohavetheirownvocabularyforemphasizingcertaineffectsonthem,suchassogood,suchfun,etc.4)TheEnglishlanguagemakescertaindistinctionsofsex-basedkind,suchasactor-actress,waiter-waitress,andmaster-mistress.Lakoffclearlyestablishedherpointthat‘equivalent’wordsreferringtomenandwomendohavequitedifferentassociationsinEnglish.ⅱ.morphologyandvocabulary56ⅱ.SexisminlanguageThegendersystemsofpronounsinsomelanguages.he-she-it‘natural’gendersystemofEnglish.Le-laorder-die-das‘grammatical’gendersystemsofFrenchandGerman.Chinese,Japanese,Persian,andTurkishdonotmakethekindsofsexdistinctionsEnglishmakesthroughitssystemofpronouns.ButwecannotsaythatthemaleswhospeaktheselanguagesarelesssexistthanmaleswhospeakEnglish.ⅱ.SexisminlanguageThegende57SexdifferencesinwordchoiceJapanesewomenshowtheyarewomenwhentheyspeak.Eg.Byuseofasentence-finalparticleneoranotherparticlewa.AmalespeakerinJapanreferstohimselfasbikuorore,whereasafemaleuseswatasioratasi.Differentlanguagesdoseemtoprescribedifferentformsforusebymenandwomen.Sexdifferencesinwordchoice58OtherexamplesTheYanalanguageofCaliforniacontainsspecialformsforuseinspeecheitherbyortowomen.thelanguageofDyirbalpeopleofNorthQueensland,Australia,whohaveaspeciallanguagewhichissex-differentiatedinarathernovelway.Thenormaleverydaylanguageisusedbybothsexes,butifyouareamanandyourmother-in-lawispresent,youusea‘mother-in-law’variety,Dyalguy.OtherexamplesTheYanalanguag59consequencesofsuchstudiesOneoftheconsequencesofsuchworkisthatthereisnowagreaterawarenessinsomepartsofthecommunitythatsubtle,andsometimesnotsosubtle,distinctionsaremadeinthevocabularychoiceusedtodescribemenandwomen.AlthoughtherearegenderdistinctionsinEnglishvocabulary,itcan’tfollowthatlanguageswithgenderdistinctionsaresexist.consequencesofsuchstudiesOn60ⅱ.GenderDifferencesingrammaticalmatters

Brendclaimsthattheintonationpatternsofmenandwomenvarysomewhat,womenusingcertainpatternsassociatedwithsurpriseandpolitenessmoreoftenthanmen.Lakoffsaysthatwomenmayansweraquestionwithastatementthatemploystherisingintonationpatternusuallyassociatedwithaquestionratherthanthefallingintonationpatternassociatedwithmakingafirmstatement.Womenoftenaddtagquestionstostatements,suchas‘youarealawyer,aren’tyou?’.ⅱ.GenderDifferencesingramm61OtherDifferencesWomenandmenmayhavedifferentparalinguisticsystemsandmoveandgesturedifferently.Thesuggestionhasbeenmadethattheseoftenrequirewomentoappeartobesubmissivetomen.Womenarealsooftennamed,titled,andaddresseddifferentlyfrommen.OtherDifferencesWomenandmen62DifferentstudiesFischer’sworkshowhowyoungboysandgirlsdifferincertainchoicestheymake.Labov’sstudiesrevealednoticeablegenderdifferencesinadultspeech.Jahangir'sstudyreportedbetweenthespeechofmalesandfemales.Gal’sstudyshowedhowitisnotonlywhatwomensaybutwhotheyarewillingtosayittothatisimportant.DifferentstudiesFischer’swor63MorestudiesaboutconversationofdifferentgendersInconversationsinvolvingmembersofbothsexesmanyresearchersagreethatmenspeakmorethanwomendo.Whenmentalkedtomen,thetopicsareaboutcompetitionandteasing,sports,aggression,anddoingthings.Whenwomentalkedtowomen,thetopicsareabouttheself,feelings,affiliationwithothers,homeandfamily.Whenthetwosexesinteracted,mentendedtotaketheinitiativeinconversation.Themenspokelessaggressivelyandcompetitivelyandthewomenreducedtheiramountoftalkabouthomeandfamilysoastoachievesomekindofaccommodation.Morestudiesaboutconversati64ⅲ.Cross-sexconversationWhatwasimportantindeterminingwhotalkedwasthecontextandthestructureofthesocialinteractionwithinwhichgenderdifferencesareobserved.Incross-sexconversationsmenfrequentlyinterruptwomenbutwomenmuchlessfrequentlyinterruptmen.Thereisevidencethatincross-sexconversationwomenaskmorequestionsthanmen,encourageotherstospeak,usemoresignalslikembmmtoencourageotherstocontinuespeaking,usemoreinstancesofyouandwe,anddonotprotestasmuchasmenwhentheyareinterrupted.ⅲ.Cross-sexconversationWhat65ⅲ.Same-sexconversationWomenandmeninthesamespeechcommunity,speakinginsamesexpairsinthesameconversationalcontext,withequalaccesstotheconversationalfloor,donotdiffereitherinthefrequencyoftheuseofyouknoworinthenumberofquestionsuttered.byFreedandGreenwoodⅲ.Same-sexconversationWomen66ⅲ.SomePossibleExplanationsⅲ.SomePossibleExplanations67ⅲ.SomePossibleExplanationsWhatarethereasonsofthegenderdifferencesinlanguage?ⅲ.SomePossibleExplanationsW68ⅲ.ThreeclaimsThe1stisthatmenandwomenarebiologicallydifferentandthatthisdifferenceshasseriousconsequencesforgender.The2nd