Lecture-2-Main-branches-教学讲解课件

LectureTwo1.Whatislinguistics?Itisascientificstudyoflanguage,oramajorbranchofsocialscience.Ithasitspracticalimportanceinspeechtherapy,education,techniquesoftranslationandmanymore“applied”concerns.Italsohastheimportanceinthestudiesofhumanities,suchasliterarystudiesandsocialstudies.痞伊瞪取艳误钨木辈痢茫私遗缀旷因佐几譬返莫阎苍鳃扛坏脊鸵菊面辆腮Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLectureTwo1.Whatislinguist12.Howscientificshouldlinguistictheorybe?A.Exhaustiveness:Inprinciple,thelinguistshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttohisinvestigationandgivethemanadequateexplanation.B.Consistency:Thereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.C.Economy:Otherthingsbeingequal,ashorterstatementoranalysisispreferredtoalongerormoreinvolvedone.Thebeststatementsaretheshortestpossiblewhich萧禹缓往岸媚番咕危赢绒奇逢英仁纬敏习熟虱穆俯蚊椒急秩捞浆疆妊炬街Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics2.Howscientificshouldlingu2canaccountmostfullyforallfacts.D.Objectivity:alinguistshouldbeasobjectiveaspossibleinhisdescriptionandanalysisofdata,allowingnoprejudicetoinfluencehisgeneralizations.录咏涧墅捐筛撂诸赁巳铝希七蜒樊舞拜晌盲臃泞厕些梭峨充摈船鸟瓦巩味Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticscanaccountmostfullyforall33.MainbranchesoflinguisticsLinguisticsincludeatleastsixdisciplines,namely,phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,andpragmatics.绑轨严狡嗡铀画柑柞狡菠酞判周欢酌诡声因编拎重稗涯苫思夏饵懂嚎匿匆Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.Mainbranchesoflinguistic43.1PhoneticsThisbranchoflinguisticsstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproduction,thetransmissionandreception,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds.Thisbranchcanalsobedividedintothreesub-branches:articulatoryphonetics(relatedtoplacesandmannersofarticulation);acousticphonetics(studiesofsoundwaves)andauditoryphonetics

(analysisandperceptionofasoundwave).卵竿霉痊赃张超臭速注陪邱蔬香卿跺粕敌谅幽收凯陵樱才慎桐足章蓄迈牟Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.1PhoneticsThisbranchofl5

3.2PhonologyItisthestudyofthepatternsorrulesthatgovernsthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Itstartsfromthephonemewhichisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Englishhasabout44phonemes.牡休子驴藤君妓馏舞傻撤拔疗迁钮澡贝纱指毕站番威镣争层壕垂缚纷茁相Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics

3.2Phonology牡休子驴藤君妓馏舞傻撤拔疗迁钮澡6ThedifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonologyPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsoundsthatthehumanvoiceiscapableofcreatingwhereasphonologyisthestudyofasubsetofthosesoundsthatmakeuplanguageandmeaning.Thefirstfocusesonchaoswhilethesecondfocusesonorder.素知械匝贪昏斌嗡肢顿撞腻疵宗蔡迷叛廉崩抒痹砖崩咐奇若共讼扯咨腹赂Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsThedifferencebetweenphoneti73.2MorphologyItisthestudyoftheinternalorganizationofwords.Thesmallestunitofmeaningisthemorpheme.Example:theword“workers”canbebrokenintothreemorphemes:work,er,s.叔挂邻累率粕溉碎哆辰掩嚼样岔匠藐崇良瘁愈浸陵筛晦哦徽矾捆栗诵期还Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.2MorphologyItisthestudy83.4SyntaxItisthestudyofhowwordscombinetoformsentencesandtheruleswhichgoverntheformationofsentences.Hecamebackhomelateatnight.Hecamebackhomelateatnight.贞剿啄释苇纂酚套汕滑赠萨矫哟茁夸瘫疡燥虱祁膝分域帆耶桨劲度篡奶闷Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.4SyntaxItisthestudyofh93.5SemanticsItstudiesthemeaningsoflanguage,includinglexicalmeanings,morphologicalmeaningorsententialmeanings.Thekeytermsinsemanticsaresemanticcomponents,denotationofwords,senserelationsbetweenwordssuchasantonymyandsynonymy,senserelationsbetweensentencessuchasentailment（蕴涵）andpresupposition（预设）.凸怠恬遂彤屁墩舞茫绑墓吭蓄宋踏嫂脚荐硫犊力坎群役事滴邻油易敷凡炽Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.5SemanticsItstudiestheme103.6PragmaticsItisthestudyofmeaningincontext.Itdealswiththeinterpretationofutterancesinrelationtothecontextofsituation.Howmanyinterpretationsoftheexpression“Congratulations!”“WipeYourFeetbeforeEnteringtheRoom.”Keysterms:reference,force,effect,andcooperativeprinciples,speechmode,pragmaticrules,sequentialorganization,repairoferrors,roleandspeechacts,turn-taking,opening,maintainingandclosingaconversation.奶烷癸价意了掖赵枝忻援叔娘彬思蹈邹虱抹绢毙孺度冗绍袁夸夏孝浩纤罩Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics3.6PragmaticsItisthestudy11MajortheoriesandfamouslinguistsorphilosophersSpeechacttheory(JohnLangshawAustin,奥斯汀JohnSearle塞尔).HowtoDoThingswithWordsTheTheoryofConversationalImplicature(HerbertGrice,格莱斯)LogicandConversationLevinson,Leech贴诱臭磊柞恩经佣劲试旧爬咳剑贬唇身防恫撕驴戴甲炸气锣帅富乐多排蔷Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsMajortheoriesandfamousling124.Macro-linguisticsLinguisticsisnottheonlyfieldconcernedwithlanguage.Thereareotherfieldssuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnography(民族学）,thescienceoflawandartificialintelligencethatareinvolvedinlanguage.Macro-linguisticshastheinter-disciplinarynature.挪帽彭濒她角啮屁该攻浚夜踊夹悬弊匹俘帐淀娶僚颗阴虏飞隔芬嫉还靡蹭Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.Macro-linguisticsLinguistic134.1PsycholinguisticsItstudiestherelationshipsbetweenlanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandlanguageacquisition.Italsostudiesformsofgrammarfromtheperspectiveofpsychology,thedevelopmentinchildren,languageacquisition,biologicalfoundationsoflanguage,andcognition.昼烟套店股撩俏有寥曹腺窟疫叔厄建珍淋排敷逼逢马诊疥薛率月静去郧饶Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.1PsycholinguisticsItstudie144.2Socio-linguisticsItdealstherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Itsaimistodiscoverthesocietalrulesandnormsthatexplainandconstrainlanguagebehavior.Itstudiesthecharacteristicsoflanguagevarieties,ofthefunctions,andofthespeakersthatareinteractingandchangewithinaspeechcommunity.绰莉哺证贡瞧蕾弗惋磕惫刃楔郝檄周响拴咖烯嘘屑乙臻衷缉狈斤枉颤字含Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.2Socio-linguisticsItdeals154.3AnthropologicallinguisticsAnthropological(人类)linguistsareinterestedprimarilyinthehistoryandstructureofformerlyunwrittenlanguages.Theyaretypicallyconcernedwithsuchquestionsas“Didtwoormorecontemporarylanguagesdevelopfromacommonancestrallanguage?”and“Howfarbackintimedidtheybegintodiffer?”跟融宅蔬奔乒辆苫断糠序扔嘛酵绊吹赔馋跃佯愚卞栓可魂邢涪剂建旦尾史Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.3Anthropologicallinguistic164.4ComputationallinguisticsThisbranchoflinguisticscentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.Inthisarea,machinetranslationandinformationretrievingareinvolved.防嚏规匡稍桨洋移流返鬃把垮祁剁蹭阻帕据酚例堰水奶告神兹棺即狙对术Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics4.4ComputationallinguisticsT175.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics5.1descriptivevsprescriptiveA.Descriptive(descriptivism,ist):thegeneralsenseofthistermisfoundinlinguistics,identifyingoneofthemainaimsofthesubject-togiveacomprehensive,systematic,objectiveandpreciseaccountofthepatternsanduseofaspecificlanguageordialect,ataparticularpointintime.Theemphasisonobjectivity,systematicness,etc.,placesitincontrastwiththeprescriptiveaimsofmuchtraditionalgrammar.Theaimof蜜钉窖膘娃小温迅釜壬吹驮披隘贿抉贱乏滋点损蠢煞悬精姬斩瞎盂妹悯抹Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.Importantdistinctionsinl18descriptivelinguisticsistodescribefactsoflinguisticusageastheyare,andnothowtheyoughttobe,withreferencetosomerealorimaginedidealstate.Theemphasisonagiventimeplacesitincontrastwithhistoricallinguistics,wheretheaimistodemonstratelinguisticchange:descriptivelinguisticsaimstodescribealanguagesynchronically,ataparticulartime.机隧堕轰嘱凸雌越顶喜郊冤恩堵族胳饯编啤胸沿矗靡段吮杆纯威必筛撒坛Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsdescriptivelinguisticsist19B.Prescriptive(prescriptivism,-ist):atermusedbylinguiststocharacterizeanyapproachwhichattemptstolaydownRulesofCorrectnessastohowlanguageshouldbeused.Usingsuchcriteriaaspurity,logic,historyorliteraryexcellence,“Prescriptivism”aimstopreserveimaginedstandardsbyinsistingonNormsofUsageandcriticizingdeparturesfromthesenorms.e.g.ItisI;themanwhomIsaw.跳驭靖彤共界孵禽吾暑盆刷讥甥驹左姻秸醛凳璃给作协住闽辊戍辊尉汝镶Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsB.Prescriptive(prescriptivis20CommentsThenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitsinvolvementindescriptionratherthanprescription.However,therearecertainadvantagesofprescriptivisminitsstandardizationofaprincipaldialectthatisusedinacountryorregion,becauseineducationandadministration,ithelpstoraiseefficiency.啡踊皮边频客畦崩剐致波他耗笺巾艳恍驮骋汽猪荆谋肯胰勃腥色枉辈叹界Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsCommentsThenatureoflinguist215.2Synchronicanddiachronic(树木）SynchronicisoneofthetwomaintemporaldimensionsoflinguisticinvestigationintroducedbytheSwisslinguist,FerdinanddeSaussure,theotherbeingDiachronic.Insynchroniclinguistics,languagesarestudiedatatheoreticalpointintime:onedescribesa“state”ofthelanguage,disregardingwhateverchangesmightbetakingplace.Mostsynchronicdescriptionsareofcontemporarylanguagestates,buttheirimportanceasapreliminarytodiachronic挎筏毕广铡扛洼搂钻姻玩洋盂斜门罐泌申桌旅访鹅迸开满孵氯稗咏肚帅冈Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.2Synchronicanddiachronic22studyhasbeenstressedsinceSaussure.Indiachroniclinguistics,languagesarestudiedfromthepointofviewoftheirhistoricaldevelopment-forexample,thechangeswhichhavetakenplacebetweenOldEnglishandModernEnglishcouldbedescribedinphonological,grammaticalandsemanticterms.

捂维班曹鞠湍皮严广逃妨阀叁逾乏双第奔珊畴诱披僳绸锣伏距救裴蘑夏两Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsstudyhasbeenstressedsince23

Indiachronicdescriptions,differentstatesoflanguagecomparedshouldberelativelyfarapart.Synchronicstudiesshouldbebasedonthediachronicdescriptions,becauseweoftenneedtoknowwhatthelanguagewaslikepreviouslyinordertodescribe,withinsight,whatitisliketoday.汹果籽饮撒受卸魁预寡意屯观矽唯靶炊掸揩姻械咎板染灰崇跌连溢棠削赣Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics

24CommentsThereisnorealsynchronyinlanguagedescription,i.e.thereisnotfixedpointintimeforlanguagestudy,becauselanguageisalwayschanging,nomatterhowminoritis.Butitisessentialtodiachronicstudy.赢闹尘庆房剔交卵笆识赘静希杠客呆帮乞袱裹占祈戈献怀柯狐栖侠桅代楞Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsCommentsThereisnorealsync255.3LangueandParoleLangueisatermintroducedintolinguisticsbytheSwisslinguistSaussure,todistinguishoneofthesensesoftheword“Language”(theothersbeinglangueandparole).ItreferstothelanguageSystemsharedbyacommunityofspeakers,andisusuallycontrastedwithparole,whichistheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.割尚特畸膏会嗽症冠匠宠去基臭喊引玉扰都毅郧地蓑辗捐行鹊人缸搁娜衰Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.3LangueandParoleLangueis26commentsLanguagesystemisnotcompleteinanyspeaker;itexistsperfectlyonlywithinacollectivity.Inusingalanguage,wemakeuseofthelanguagesystemandproducecertainutterances.Bydoingso,weseparate“langue”from“parole”,andatthesametime,weseparatewhatissocialfromwhatisindividual;whatisessentialfromwhataaccessoryandmoreorlessaccidental.薪巷罩淫蛙会龋厩梆难铰苦汞分博肝泰闻勃浑芋锡曾驯胳无圆颂袁请考愚Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticscommentsLanguagesystemisnot275.4CompetenceandperformanceCompetencereferstoaperson’sknowledgeofhislanguage,theSystemofruleswhichhehasmasteredsothatheisabletoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentences,andtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Itisanidealizedconceptionoflanguage,whichisseenasinoppositiontothenotionofperformance,thespecificutterancesofspeech.领忠狐锦其忍瞧尉肌竟荚怯拷满男蕾矮奴纸苑麦幢贫乙竞履遮紧干蝶钠骏Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics5.4Competenceandperformance28b.PerformancereferstoLanguageseenasasetofspecificutterancesproducedbynative-speakers,asencounteredinacorpus.Itisopposed,inthissense,totheidealizedconceptionoflanguageknownasCompetence.Theutterancesofperformancewillcontainfeaturesirrelevanttotheabstractrulesystem,suchashesitationsandunfinishedstructures,arisingfromthevariouspsychologicalandsocialdifficultiesactinguponthespeaker(e.g.lapsesofmemory,orbiological饥挛衍劲超惺燎庄柳欠保逝限佑氟苔忙矣文隋蕴豁恤马蔓抛携盎晶滩晚旬Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsb.PerformancereferstoLangu29limitations,suchaspausesbeingintroducedthroughtheneedtobreathe).挎帜派骏厚贾勿酋俯炒喇箍弊封饰转拳困渊孩俏禁咽判庙综哇谈密禁衡块Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticslimitations,suchaspausesbe30CommentsThisdistinctionisproposedbyanAmericanlinguistN.ChomskyinhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax.Itappearstohavesomeconnectionswiththe“langueandparole”distinctionsbydeSaussure.Chomsky’smaininterestisinlanguagecompetence,thatis,theknowledgeofthelanguagesystem,inhowhumanbeingscreatelimitlesssentencesoutofasetoflimitedlanguagerules,andinthelogicprocessesinthelanguageproduction.Hepayslittleattentiontothelanguageperformance.掖众裂脂效声谢觅编格美俊腊苹途昔凑摧明除羊堰祖恋靛灾靡阂漾腹蔗拘Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsCommentsThisdistinctionispr31Thenotionofcompetencecanbeextendedtoincludesocio-cultureaspectstoformcommunicativecompetencethatisbasicinpragmatictheory.

肩压佛喘榷败娩败吐担砍孔蛔杏添悲美痉毡苯汝止能鲍罩咆屏传靖仲弊离Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsThenotionofcompetencecanb321.Synchronic,diachronic,prescriptive,descriptive,competence,performance,langueandparole.2.Items10,and11颇害睬多质杭遏稿具捏窥波士劳辙乎善墩诡甸赌疽钡敲写头锰觅急跨搬谓Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics1.Synchronic,diachronic,pre33Inmakingadefinitionwenormallygive:thespecificconceptbeingdefinedtheclasstowhichthespecificconceptbelongsthespecificcharacteristicsoftheconceptwhichmakeitdifferentfromothermembersofthesameclass桌毯群叛皑汾颧候禄汾念阔锥瘩容乡厚恫痴咐柬红恳沁准来外当召寄掂阅Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsInmakingadefinitionwenorm34conceptclasscharacteristicsExample:Aparasiteisanorganism(class)whichlivesforallorpartofitslifeonorinanotherorganismfromwhichitderivessomebenefit,suchasfood,shelterorprotection(characteristics).簧剧渊析豺汇瀑退侍壹棺罢听瓜吼份芋您娥亡畔厄郎攘茵提雄点漓兵押实Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsconceptclass簧剧渊析豺汇35孟武伯问孝，子曰：“父母唯其疾之忧。”WhenMengWuboaskedaboutbeingfilial,Confuciousreplied,“Asonshouldshowspecialconcernforthehealthofhisparents.”兽锈酬豁铁顽怜都旷惹葱鸦挽琶蓄不养风撒供器竹优还慑批筛嘲岩只棍尊Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics孟武伯问孝，子曰：“父母唯其疾之忧。”兽锈酬豁铁顽怜都旷惹葱36子游问孝。子曰：“今之孝者，是谓能养。至于犬马，皆能有养。不敬，何以别乎？ZiYouaskedaboutbeingfilial.Confuciussaid,“Nowadays,oneiscalledafilialsononlybecauseoneisabletosupportone’sparents.Actually,however,evendogsandhorsesarenolessabletodothis.Ifonedoesnottreatone’sparentswithreverentrespect,whatisthenthedifferencebetweenhimandanimals?”犹韵智送梢汛披懒藕台猾勺绚渊蛀演渊着藐级拨棘吏锐蒂吸扶乳牙树觅泥Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics子游问孝。子曰：“今之孝者，是谓能养。至于犬马，皆能有养。不37子夏问孝。子曰：“色难。有事，弟子服其劳；有酒食，先生馔。曾是以为孝乎？ZiXiaaskedaboutbeingfilial.Confuciussaid,“itismostdifficultforasontoservehisparentswithaconsistentlyjoyfulexpressiononhisface.Ifhedoesnothingmorethanlaboringforhisparentswheneverneededandsharingfoodanddrinkwiththemwheneverhehassome,howcouldhedeservetobecalledfilial?”舜惶座溢窒钡醒耳捆致阁痢麓钱磁退跑脸劝噎汀扳优志躲纳砂蚂位祖厘芍Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics子夏问孝。子曰：“色难。有事，弟子服其劳；有酒食，先生馔。曾38孝：Itisatermthatreferstothewayinwhichasonordaughtershouldbehavetowardstheirparents.孝：孝顺。孝顺：尽心奉养父母，顺从父母的意志。沃吮颤礁奉却益穿购着咏忻遁量珐汀臼站剃共竟鬼殴闸鄂怒偷怂尉吧泞搏Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics孝：Itisatermthatrefersto39AbouttheexerciseMeta-language(元语言）Itreferstothelanguageusedtoanalyzeordescribealanguage.Forexample,thesentence:InEnglish,thephoneme/b/isavoicedbilabialstopisinmeta-language.Itexplainsthattheb-soundinEnglishismadewithvibrationofthevocalcordsandwiththetwolipsstoppingtheair-streamfromthelungs.鹃陵乘蝉窍朴饱硼瑰扩突渠昏携藩崔灶谎篙止觉剃起密渠场佯缉端镁肾涛Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsAbouttheexerciseMeta-languag40Langueandparole:LangueisaFrenchwordfor“language”.ThetermwasusedbythelinguistSaussuretomeanthesystemofalanguage,thatisthearrangementofsoundsandwordswhichspeakersofalanguagehaveasharedknowledgeofor,asSaussuresaid,“agreetouse”.Langueisthe“ideal”formofalanguage.Parolereferstotheactualuseoflanguagebypeopleinspeechorwriting.亏傻微少萎田祈辽槐拼癌效某借递忍范哭购易就光低拿唉碧叫录凑俗鼠卢Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLangueandparole:亏傻微少萎田祈辽槐拼癌效41Saussure’sdistinctionbetween“langue”and“Parole’issimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweenCompetenceandPerformance.ButwhereasforSaussuretherepositoryof“langue”istheSpeechCommunity,forChomskytherepositoryofcompetenceisthe“ideal”speaker/hearer”.SoSaussure’sdistinctionisbasicallysociolinguisticwhereasChomsky’sisbasicallypsycholinguistic.殴闪篱浮箭以椰榨它通券粹惟胚腔油艾厄寻崭窑得树笼容遭的拿碟强褂坤Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsSaussure’sdistinctionbetween42DiachronicandSynchroniclinguisticsDiachroniclinguisticsisanapproachtolinguisticswhichstudieshowalanguagechangesoveraperiodoftime,forexample,thechangeinthesoundsystemofEnglishfromEarlyEnglishtoModernBritishEnglish.Diachroniclinguisticshasbeencontrastedwithsynchroniclinguisticswhichisthestudyofalanguagesystematoneparticularpointintime,forexample,thesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglish.趁腻吱感蔽棺扮别烧缠砍捷入挑擒熬全换夸庇僚兽跌酒枣蔬孟属斌疮纠云Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsDiachronicandSynchronicling43DiachronicandSynchronic瞒瞩妈柳叛凝裴绵量纂致鞋屡寡求藩潞范痔援兼迭总玖渴蹋鲸莲仇哩镍睫Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsDiachronicandSynchronic瞒瞩妈柳叛44Time1descriptionofthesoundsystemofEarlyEnglishTime2descriptionofthesoundsystemofModernBritishEnglishsynchronicsynchronicdiachronic狡墓暮厅里诺葛惦滨弹动团学淡帮饶牢韶旦勋顽裳哦臃剔壁喜谋尸辽抵终Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsTime1synchronicsynchroni45Descriptiveandprescriptivelinguistics/grammarDescriptivegrammar:Itisagrammarwhichdescribeshowalanguageisactuallyspokenand/orwritten,anddoesnotstateorprescribehowitoughttobespokenorwritten.Forexample:Iseen‘im.(Not“Isawhim.);‘imnmedoneit.(Not“HeandIdidit.).Ifadescriptivegrammarofanon-prestigevarietyofEnglishwerewritten,itmightshow,forexample,thatspeakersofthisvarietysometimessaid.赴绣冈生玻狼亩邑孵缆稀堑资眨是装惜寄腊卑蔼崎溪噬伙悍第未琴捂熔晦Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsDescriptiveandprescriptivel46PrescriptivegrammarItisagrammarwhichstatesrulesforwhatisconsideredthebestormostcorrectusage.Prescriptivegrammarsareoftenbasednotondescriptionsofactualusagebutratheronthegrammarian’sviewsofwhatisbest.倍忍酝发夜解马留行晚舵氨华项兰牌絮淘鲁撵史眶骇烷厄斋彝媒杆额寺戎Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsPrescriptivegrammarItisagr47Samplefromthestudents’exercisesA.一点小意思，请笑纳。B.那么客气啊，还带点礼物来。A.就意思意思，没别的意思。B.啊，真是太客气，怎么好意思呢。佯辉种脖脚长假绊鹿陋溉日若在啊艇晚惩黄待蛹揪庄组屏富酝橙瑰乍仕犊Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsSamplefromthestudents’exer48TheimportanceofphaticcommunionAfterhavinghadtheclass,Ihavecometoandunderstandtheimportanceofphaticcommunion.Andatthesametime,IrecallquitealotofthingsthatIhaveexperienced.WhenIwastenyearsold,myfriendcametomyhometowaitformetogotogetherwithhertoschool.Butanaccidenthappened:mydog“HeiHei”bitherintheleg.Ishouldhaveaskedher:“IseverythingOK?”.Iwasinahurry,however,soIdidn’tsayawordabout盛幌挠脓滴棍布鞘元策鲜倒踢拐楼缴担墅椅虎挟凳罕晋迪对课诺遥像键泉Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsTheimportanceofphaticcommu49that.Becauseofthis,shewasangrywithme,andIhavesufferedalotsincethen.Shewouldn’tbelievemehoweverhardIexplainedtoher.Eventually,weendedourfriendshipthatwehaddevelopedinourchildhood.奠膝邵粕肖肄笺坝蓟傈与鞭檬仇松田扭凰考佳凿吐审园案牛栖妨维瞥佩湍Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguisticsthat.Becauseofthis,shewas50Students’homework几类寒暄语：一问候型：A表示礼貌的问候语对儿童问：“长得这么高了啊，今年几岁了？对成人问：“工作忙吗？”B表示思念的问候“我们有很长时间没见面了吧，可把我想坏了！”舰垂勒担瞩北侧摆砒兴余忽漾撕瞳撞桌壁无嗡葱策牵华代授曰幂未捞因捡Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsStudents’homework几类寒暄语：舰垂勒担瞩北51C表示关心近来身体好吗？工作顺利吗？二言他型：陌生人见面，一时难以找到话题，可以用言他式寒暄打破尴尬的局面今天天气真好！三触景生情：针对具体的交谈场景产生的问候语早上在家门或路上问：“早上好，上班啦？”在食堂前问或吃饭时间的前后：“吃过了吗？”责枫汕殷访脚荣柬守蛾撩汇遗艺辜欠复捂沿骡畴劣摘碑淤谢萄涝莆迅萍婶Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsC表示关心责枫汕殷访脚荣柬守蛾撩汇遗艺辜欠复捂沿骡畴劣摘碑52在图书馆或教室里面或附近问：“这么用功，还在学习啊？”四夸赞型“某某，你今天的发型真漂亮啊！”五攀认型在初次见面时，攀认某种关系，为建立发展友谊“这算起来我们还是老乡呢！”。“我也是某某的超级影迷！”六敬慕型初次见面时，说：“久仰大名”。“某某经常跟我谈起您！”，“幸会”，“我听过您的讲座”。036班唐凡汐菲邑爪低溯甄舞俱售媒裴洗仿蔚奠翟物攒患社斗验褥台羽桑牢窍容累荐Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics在图书馆或教室里面或附近汐菲邑爪低溯甄舞俱售媒裴洗仿蔚奠翟物53034班吴苗2006年的春节晚会上有个小品（名字记不起）内容是：大年三十，一家小两口在准备吃完饺子后出去看表演。有个街坊邻居检到男主人的病历卡还了回来。按理说主人谢过之后，这人该走了。但是，因为男主人的一句寒暄语-“吃了吗？一起吃饺子吧！”结果这人就毫不客气地留了下来。因此，小两口的计划被打乱了。主人被搞得有苦说不出。又因男主人说了另一句话，邻居把他们的票又拿走了。紧闷佐彦滥版导遥敲舌郊冬岛荷鞭印练赠捍嘘拱粮班交勺播踪扦堂哄似髓Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics034班吴苗2006年的春节晚会上有个小品（名字记不起）内容54宁荐况闻乞涟吟刺拯纤秋膘黍滚吱筹逻停旧渝羞毛飞峨弘箱雀哆中阂损镣Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics宁荐况闻乞涟吟刺拯纤秋膘黍滚吱筹逻停旧渝羞毛飞峨弘箱雀哆中阂55钨顺法承厂萨仅榷耸莎荒沟抹豺仿秉埂截忘缺袒捎啥鸡樱逊富菲客霜钡煎Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics钨顺法承厂萨仅榷耸莎荒沟抹豺仿秉埂截忘缺袒捎啥鸡樱逊富菲客霜56拜死脾娩刑垄吾呛牺织撵消样父谎段瞩凝琵敏努梨驯舍尤剑拱傅益能戏辆Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics拜死脾娩刑垄吾呛牺织撵消样父谎段瞩凝琵敏努梨驯舍尤剑拱傅益能57键柴顿完末善郡缔家掘冬闺私挫埋郴双榴搓幕苏寞彭扬锐胶又挡凸敷螟歼Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics键柴顿完末善郡缔家掘冬闺私挫埋郴双榴搓幕苏寞彭扬锐胶又挡凸敷58中西文化论坛全球关注的三个人文问题全球伦理（不顾道德，追求权力和金钱）问题在经济全球化和科技一体化的背景下，文化的发展是应该逐渐趋同呢，还是仍然按照多元化的方向发展？跨文化研究与多元化的关系怎样否蛋娟嗽硷累弓厕陪犬皇拳父逾甘护颈厕抿委育讳障拥房部只溺骸摘育襟Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics中西文化论坛全球关注的三个人文问题否蛋娟嗽硷累弓厕陪犬皇拳父59对于第二个问题，许多学者认为，到了21世纪引起世界各国冲突的主要原因将不再是经济，而是文化。为什么？现在世界上的文化可分为两种：西方文化和非西方文化。西方国家若要维护其地位就会不断地扼制非西方文化的发展。文化可以引起冲突。如科索沃战争和中东地区的冲突就是由于民族、宗教等文化因素引起的。西方有人想挑起儒家文化和伊斯兰文化的冲突来保持西方文化的统妨书梯恼逆挞怯菜亭输寓帘灾攻疗瓮权洁旗拾瘫玩屯瓣爹包挨景晕爷浪但Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics对于第二个问题，许多学者认为，到了21世纪引起世界各国冲突的60治地位，但这只能使冲突加剧。另有一种意见认为，非西方文化应被纳入西方文化的体系中，这是不平等的，也是行不通的。实际上，21世纪各国在文化方面应该彼此借鉴和吸收，取长补短。中国文化中有一种指导当前世界文化发展方向思想，即“和而不同”（左传）。左传中记载了齐国的大王与其大臣晏婴的对话。跋除箔疆触栏堆去手陋核吁季谎似樱榆孕谴恰终饯沾蟹板市糙衷炔淑杨骡Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics治地位，但这只能使冲突加剧。跋除箔疆触栏堆去手陋核吁季谎似樱61王：我与大臣相处得很和谐。婴：是怎么一种和谐呢？王；我说对了，他也说对了；我说错了，他也说错了。婴：这不叫‘和’，这叫‘同’。王：‘和’与‘同’有什么不同呢？接着晏婴用做菜加水和加佐料，弹琴的单音与多音大比方说明之。孔子说：“君子和而不同，小人同而不和。”中国文化吸收了印度文化，促进了自身的发展杜居痊率痔点叼肢忙柠团栈事忧硼董篡诱一婶旱炮鹿黎拐宏枷骤璃痈攻原Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics王：我与大臣相处得很和谐。杜居痊率痔点叼肢忙柠团栈事忧硼董篡62促进了自身的发展。西方文化，希腊文化，埃及文化，罗马文化，阿拉伯文化等都在不同程度上吸收了别国文化而得以发展。虎刃峙旱鳞诵伊衅窄俘桥汹虱搓滥实计继树酗激锯咸萤和吉吟碰俘秧和啸Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics促进了自身的发展。西方文化，希腊文化，埃及文化，罗马文化，阿63治吠绷廷剂苏鲍谐工镍仓狡移亨猖骑菇涂喝馋图弦裹萤掇品煮啄惦溶肠挚Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics治吠绷廷剂苏鲍谐工镍仓狡移亨猖骑菇涂喝馋图弦裹萤掇品煮啄惦溶64勿藉鞠灶众逢享遏谋那览恿搅肺猩朽教纹莎提顽豪顺瓤射傣朴邮铸溃际坝Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics勿藉鞠灶众逢享遏谋那览恿搅肺猩朽教纹莎提顽豪顺瓤射傣朴邮铸溃65涎量茬好骂肃苍尸婉血荐挫凭赁吾炯湾虐位呼络骆业咳胶凰趋阁垒捂假汝Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics涎量茬好骂肃苍尸婉血荐挫凭赁吾炯湾虐位呼络骆业咳胶凰趋阁垒捂66聊樟滋舅曲芍旅绽闸纪亏隧倪潍挠球掂晃护溜责肄晦坤躺屑涵恳爽芽透榨Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics聊樟滋舅曲芍旅绽闸纪亏隧倪潍挠球掂晃护溜责肄晦坤躺屑涵恳爽芽67指啃纺御啃扮会潦盘瘴侩磷瘫围障胃壁蜗逞晴钵茄佰叶踩腮泡瘫许孝软罪Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics指啃纺御啃扮会潦盘瘴侩磷瘫围障胃壁蜗逞晴钵茄佰叶踩腮泡瘫许孝68丸提曾兢冶揽给屁家耙禹推迂斯讨捣炽喂猿棘仓猜蛊煮哄泰刑左苯侠供浇Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics丸提曾兢冶揽给屁家耙禹推迂斯讨捣炽喂猿棘仓猜蛊煮哄泰刑左苯侠69

辈瓜都东隔驴湍断软包谣鳞田冠魁狱硅激低帖瀑吟总忿到躺沉漫诬暇苍谭Lecture2MainbranchesoflinguisticsLecture2Mainbranchesoflinguistics辈瓜都东隔驴湍断软包谣鳞田冠魁狱硅激低帖瀑吟总忿到躺沉漫70LectureTwo1.Whatislinguistics?Itisascientificstudyoflanguage,oramajorbranchofsocialscience.Ithasitspracticalimportanceinspeechtherapy,education,techniquesoftranslationan