化学工程与工艺专业英语二共资料课件

Unit2researchanddevelopmentResearchanddevelopment,orR&Dasitiscommonlyreferredto,isanactivitywhichiscarriedoutbyallsectorsofmanufacturingindustrybutitsextentvariesconsiderably,aswewillseeshortly.Letusfirstunderstand,oratleastgetafeelfor,whatthetermsmean.Althoughthedistinctionbetweenresearchanddevelopmentisnotalwaysclear-cut,andthereisoftenconsiderableoverlap,wewillattempttoseparatethem.Unit2researchanddevelopme1

Insimpletermsresearchcanbethoughtofastheactivitywhichproducesnewideaandknowledgewhereasdevelopmentisputtingthoseideaintopracticeasnewprocessesandproducts.Toillustratethiswithanexample,predictingthestructureofnewmoleculewhichwouldhaveaspecificbiologicalactivityandsynthesizingitcouldbeseenasresearch,whereastestingitanddevelopingittothepointwhereitcouldbemarketedasanewdrugcouldbedescribedasthedevelopmentpart.Insimpletermsresearchc2

1.FundamentalResearchandAppliedResearchInindustrytheprimaryreasonforcarryingoutR&Diseconomicandistostrengthenandimprovethecompany’spositionandprofitability.ThepurposeofR&Distogenerateandprovideinformationandknowledgetoreduceuncertainty,solveproblemsandprovidebetterdataonwhichmanagementcanbasedecisions.Specificprojectscoverawiderangeoftoactivityandtimescales,fromanewmonthsto20years.WecanpickoutanumberofareasofR&Dactivityinthefollowingparagraphsbutifweweretostartwiththosewhichweretospringtothemindoftheacademic,ratherthanthe1.FundamentalResearchand3

industrial,chemistthenthiswouldbebasic,fundamental(background)orexploratoryresearchandthesynthesisofnewcompounds.Thisisalsolabeled“blueskies”research.Fundamentalresearchistypicallyassociatedwithuniversityresearch.Inmaybecarriedoutforitsownintrinsicinterestanditwilladdtothetotalknowledgebasebutnoimmediateapplicationsofitinthe“realworld”willbeapparent.Notthatitwillbeprovideavaluabletrainingindefiningandsolvingproblems,i.e.researchmethodologyfortheresearchstudentwhocarriesitout,undersupervision.however,later“spinoffs”fromsuchindustrial,chemistthent4

workcanleadtousefulapplications.Thusphysicistsclaimthatbutforthestudentanddevelopmentofquantumtheorywemightnothavehadcomputersandnuclearpower.However,totakeaspecificallychemicalexample,generalstudiesonabroadareasuchashydrocarbonoxidationmightprovideinformationwhichwouldbeusefulinmorespecificareassuchascyclohexaneoxidationfortheproductionofnylonintermediates.Aspectsofsynthesiscouldinvolveeitherdevelopingnew,morespecificreagentsforcontrollingparticularfunctionalgroupinterconversions,i.e.developingsyntheticmethodologyorcompletesynthesisofanentirelyworkcanleadtousefulappli5

newmoleculewhichisbiologicallyactive.Althoughtheformerisclearlyfundamentalthelatterencompassesboththisandappliedaspects.Thisterm‘applied’hastraditionallybeenmoreassociatedwithresearchcarriedoutinindustriallaboratories,sincethisismorefocusedortargeted.Itisaconsequenceoftheworkbeingbusinessdriven.Note,however,thattherehasbeenamajorchangeinrecentyearsasacademicinstitutionshaveincreasinglyturnedtoindustryforresearchfunding,withtheresultthatmuchmoreoftheirresearcheffortisnowdevotedtomoreappliedresearch.Evenso,inacademiatheemphasisgenerallyisverymuchontheresearchratherthannewmoleculewhichisbiol6

thedevelopment.2.TypesofIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentTheappliedormoretargetedtypeofresearchanddevelopmentcommonlycarriedoutinindustrycanbeofseveraltypeandwewillbrieflyconsidereach.Theyare:(i)productdevelopment,(ii)processdevelopment,(iii)processimprovementand(iv)applicationsdevelopment.Evenundertheseheadingsthereareamultitudeofaspectsoonlyatypicalexamplecanbequotedineachcase.Theemphasisoneachofthesewillvaryconsiderablywithinthedifferentsectorsofthechemicalindustry.Productdevelopment.Productdevelopmentthedevelopment.7

includesnotonlythediscoveryanddevelopmentofanewdrugbutalso,forexample,providinganewlonger-actinganti-oxidantadditivetoanautomobileengineoil.Developmentssuchasthishaveenabledservicingintervalstoincreaseduringthelastdecadefrom3000to6000to9000andnowto12000miles.Notethatmostpurchasersofchemicalsacquirethemfortheeffortsthattheyproduce,i.e.aspecificuse.TeflonTM,orploytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),maybepurchasedbecauseitimpartsanon-sticksurfacetocookingpotsandpans,therebymakingeasiertoclean.Processdevelopment.Processdevelopmentincludesnotonlythediscove8

covers

notonlydevelopmentamanufacturingprocessforanentirelynewproductbutalsoanewprocessorrouteforanexistingproduct.Thepushforthelattermayoriginateforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:availabilityofnewtechnology,changeintheavailabilityand/orcostofrawmaterials.Manufactureofvinylchloridemonomerisanexampleofthis.Itsmanufacturingroutehaschangedseveraltimesowingtochangingeconomics,technologyandrawmaterials.Anotherstimulusisamarkedincreaseindemandandhencesalesvolumewhichcanhaveamajoreffectontheeconomicsoftheprocess.Theearlydaysofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiaof

this.coversnotonly9TheabilityofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiainbattlewoundsduringtheSecondWorldWar(1939~1945)resultedinanenormousdemandforittobeproducedinquantity.Upuntilthenithadonlybeenproducedinsmallamountsonthesurfaceofthefermentationbrothinmilkbottles!AnenormousR&DeffortjointlyintheU.S.andtheU.K.resultedintwomajorimprovementstotheprocess.Firstlyadifferentstrain③ofthemould(penicilliumchrysogenum)gavemuchbetteryieldsthantheTheabilityofpenicillintop10originalpenicilliumnotatum.Secondlythemajorprocessdevelopmentwastheintroductionofthedeepsubmergedfermentationprocess.Herethefermentationtakesplacethroughoutthebroth,providedsterileairisconstantly,andvigorously,blownthroughit.Thishasenabledtheprocesstobescaledupenormouslytomodernstainlesssteelfermentershavingacapacityinexcessof50000liters.Itissalutarytonotethatinthefirstworldwar(1914-1919)moresoldiersdiedfromsepticemiaoftheirwoundsthanwereactuallykilledoutrightonthebattlefield!Processdevelopmentforanewproductdependsonthingssuchasthescaleonwhichitisoriginalpenicilliumnotat11

tobemanufactured,theby-productformedandtheirremoval/recovery,andrequiredpurity.Datewillbeacquiredduringthisdevelopmentstageusingsemi-technicalplant(upto100literscapacity)whichwillbeinvaluableinthedesignoftheactualmanufacturingplant.Iftheplantistobeaverylargecapacity,continuouslyoperatingone,e.g.petrochemicalorammonia,thenapilotplantwillfirstbebuiltandoperatetotestouttheprocessandacquiremoredata,thesesemi-technicalorpilotplantswillberequiredfortesting,e.g.,apesticide,orcustomerevaluation,e.g.,anewpolymer.Notethatby-productscanhaveamajorinfluenceontheeconomicsofachemicaltobemanufactured,12

process.Phenolmanufactureprovidesastrikingexampleofthis.Theoriginalroute,thebenzenesulphonicacidroute,hasbecomeobstaclebecausedemandforitsby-productsodiumsulfite(2.2tons/1tonphenol)hasdriedup.Itsrecoveryanddisposalwillthereforebeanadditionalchargeontheprocess,thusincreasingthecostofthephenol.Incontrastthecumenerouteowesitseconomicadvantageoveralltheotherroutetothestrongdemandfortheby-productacetone(0.6tons/1tonphenol).Thesaleofthisthereforereducesthenetcostofthephenol.Amajorpartoftheprocessdevelopmentactivityforanewplantistominimize,orideallyprocess.Phenolmanufacturep13

preventbydesigningout,wasteproductionandhencepossiblepollution.Theeconomicandenvironmentaladvantageofthisareobvious.Finallyitshouldbenotedthatprocessdevelopmentrequiresabigteameffortbetweenchemists,chemicalengineers,andelectricalandmechanicalengineerstobesuccessful.Processimprovement.Processimprovementrelatestoprocesseswhicharealreadyoperating.Itmaybeaproblemthathasarisenandstoppedproduction.Inthissituationthereisalotofpressuretofindasolutionassonaspossiblesothatproductioncanrestart,since'downtime‘costsmoney.preventbydesigningout,was14

Morecommonly,however,processimprovementwillbedirectedatimprovingtheprofitabilityoftheprocess.Thismightbeachievedinanumberofways.Forexample,improvingtheprofitabilityoftheprocess,increasingthecapacitybyintroductionanewcatalyst,orloweringtheenergyrequirementoftheprocess.AnexampleofthelatterwastheintroductionofturbocompressorsintheproductionofammoniabytheHaberprocess.Thisreducedutilitycosts(mainlyelectricity)from$6.66$0.56pertonofammoniaproduced.Improvingthequalityoftheproduct,byprocessmodification,mayleadtonewmarketsfortheproduct.Morecommonly,however,15

INrecentyears,themostimportantprocessimprovementactivityhasbeentoreducetheenvironmentalimpactoftheprocess,i.e.,topreventtheprocesscausinganyPollution.Clearlytherehavebeentwointerlinkeddrivingforcesforthis.Firstly,thepublic’sconcernaboutthesafetyofchemicalsandtheireffectontheenvironment.andthelegislationwhichhasfollowasaresultofthis.Secondlythecosttothemanufacturerofhavingtotreatwaste(i.e.,materialwhichcannotberecoveredandusedorsold)sothatitcanbesafelydisposedof,saybypumpingintoariver.Thisobviouslyrepresentsachargeontheprocesswhichwillincreasethecostofthechemicalbeingmade.Thepotentialforimprovementbyreducingtheamountofwasteisself-evident.INrecentyears,themos16

Note,however,withaplantwhichhasalreadybeenbuiltandisoperatingthereareusuallyonlyverylimitedphysicalchangeswhichcanbemadetotheplanttoachievetheaboveaims.Hencetheimportance,alreadymentioned,ofeliminatingwasteproductionatthedesignstageofanewplant.Conservingenergyandthusreducingenergycosthasbeenanothermajorpreoccupationinrecentyears(4)Applicationsdevelopment.Clearlythediscoveryofnewapplicationsorusesforaproductcanincreaseorprolongitsprofitability.NotonlydoesthisgeneratemoreincomebuttheresultingincreasedscaleofproductioncanleadtoNote,however,wit17

lowerunitcostandincreasedprofit.AnexampleisPVCwhoseearlyusesincludedrecordsandplasticraincoats.Applicationswhichcan\melaterincludedplasticbagsandparticularlyengineeringusesinpipesandguttering.Emphasishasalreadybeenplaceonthefactthatchemicalsareusuallypurchasedfortheeffect,orparticularuse,orapplicationwhichtheyhave.Thisoftenmeansthattherewillbecloseliaisonbetweenthechemicalcompanies’technicalsalesrepresentativesandthecustomer,andtheleveloftechnicalsupportforthecustomercanbeamajorfactorinwinningsales.Researchanddevelopmentchemistsprovidethesupportforlowerunitcostandincreased18

theseapplicationsdevelopment.AnexampleisCF3CH3F.ThisisthefirstoftheCFCreplacementsandhasbeendevelopedasarefrigerantgas.However,ithasrecentlybeenfoundthatithasspecialpropertiesasasolventforextractingnaturalproductsfromplantmaterials.Innowaywasthisenvisagedwhenthecompoundwasfirstbeingmadeforuseasarefrigerantgas,butitclearlyisanexampleofapplicationsdevelopment.3.VariationsinR&DActivitiesacrosstheChemicalindustryBoththenatureandamountofR&Dcarriedouttheseapplicationsdevelopmen19

variessignificantlyacrossthevarioussectorsofthechemicalindustry.Insectorswhichinvolvelargescaleproductionofbasicchemicalsandwherethechemistry,productsandtechnologychangeonlyslowlybecausetheprocessesaremature,R&Dexpenditureisatthelowerendoftherangeforthechemicalindustry.Mostofthiswillbedevotedtoprocessimprovementandeffluenttreatment.Examplesincludeammoniafertilizersandchloralkaliproductionfromtheinorganicside,andbasicpetrochemicalintermediatessuchasethylenefromtheorganicside.variessignificantlya20

Attheotherendofthescaleliepharmaceuticalsandpesticidesforpaintprotectionproducts).Herethereareimmenseandcontinuouseffortstosynthesizenewmoleculeswhichexertthedesired,specificbiologicaleffect.Asinglecompanymaygenerate10.000newcompoundsforscreeningeachyear.Littlewonderthatsomeindividualpharmaceuticalcompany’sannualR&Dexpenditureisnowapproaching＄1000million!Expressingthisinadifferentwayspendinexcessof14%ofsalesincome(notenotprofits)onR&D.Attheother21

Thankyou拯畏怖汾关炉烹霉躲渠早膘岸缅兰辆坐蔬光膊列板哮瞥疹傻俘源拯割宜跟三叉神经痛-治疗三叉神经痛-治疗拯畏怖汾关炉烹霉躲渠早膘岸缅兰辆坐蔬光膊列板哮瞥疹22Unit2researchanddevelopmentResearchanddevelopment,orR&Dasitiscommonlyreferredto,isanactivitywhichiscarriedoutbyallsectorsofmanufacturingindustrybutitsextentvariesconsiderably,aswewillseeshortly.Letusfirstunderstand,oratleastgetafeelfor,whatthetermsmean.Althoughthedistinctionbetweenresearchanddevelopmentisnotalwaysclear-cut,andthereisoftenconsiderableoverlap,wewillattempttoseparatethem.Unit2researchanddevelopme23

Insimpletermsresearchcanbethoughtofastheactivitywhichproducesnewideaandknowledgewhereasdevelopmentisputtingthoseideaintopracticeasnewprocessesandproducts.Toillustratethiswithanexample,predictingthestructureofnewmoleculewhichwouldhaveaspecificbiologicalactivityandsynthesizingitcouldbeseenasresearch,whereastestingitanddevelopingittothepointwhereitcouldbemarketedasanewdrugcouldbedescribedasthedevelopmentpart.Insimpletermsresearchc24

1.FundamentalResearchandAppliedResearchInindustrytheprimaryreasonforcarryingoutR&Diseconomicandistostrengthenandimprovethecompany’spositionandprofitability.ThepurposeofR&Distogenerateandprovideinformationandknowledgetoreduceuncertainty,solveproblemsandprovidebetterdataonwhichmanagementcanbasedecisions.Specificprojectscoverawiderangeoftoactivityandtimescales,fromanewmonthsto20years.WecanpickoutanumberofareasofR&Dactivityinthefollowingparagraphsbutifweweretostartwiththosewhichweretospringtothemindoftheacademic,ratherthanthe1.FundamentalResearchand25

industrial,chemistthenthiswouldbebasic,fundamental(background)orexploratoryresearchandthesynthesisofnewcompounds.Thisisalsolabeled“blueskies”research.Fundamentalresearchistypicallyassociatedwithuniversityresearch.Inmaybecarriedoutforitsownintrinsicinterestanditwilladdtothetotalknowledgebasebutnoimmediateapplicationsofitinthe“realworld”willbeapparent.Notthatitwillbeprovideavaluabletrainingindefiningandsolvingproblems,i.e.researchmethodologyfortheresearchstudentwhocarriesitout,undersupervision.however,later“spinoffs”fromsuchindustrial,chemistthent26

workcanleadtousefulapplications.Thusphysicistsclaimthatbutforthestudentanddevelopmentofquantumtheorywemightnothavehadcomputersandnuclearpower.However,totakeaspecificallychemicalexample,generalstudiesonabroadareasuchashydrocarbonoxidationmightprovideinformationwhichwouldbeusefulinmorespecificareassuchascyclohexaneoxidationfortheproductionofnylonintermediates.Aspectsofsynthesiscouldinvolveeitherdevelopingnew,morespecificreagentsforcontrollingparticularfunctionalgroupinterconversions,i.e.developingsyntheticmethodologyorcompletesynthesisofanentirelyworkcanleadtousefulappli27

newmoleculewhichisbiologicallyactive.Althoughtheformerisclearlyfundamentalthelatterencompassesboththisandappliedaspects.Thisterm‘applied’hastraditionallybeenmoreassociatedwithresearchcarriedoutinindustriallaboratories,sincethisismorefocusedortargeted.Itisaconsequenceoftheworkbeingbusinessdriven.Note,however,thattherehasbeenamajorchangeinrecentyearsasacademicinstitutionshaveincreasinglyturnedtoindustryforresearchfunding,withtheresultthatmuchmoreoftheirresearcheffortisnowdevotedtomoreappliedresearch.Evenso,inacademiatheemphasisgenerallyisverymuchontheresearchratherthannewmoleculewhichisbiol28

thedevelopment.2.TypesofIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentTheappliedormoretargetedtypeofresearchanddevelopmentcommonlycarriedoutinindustrycanbeofseveraltypeandwewillbrieflyconsidereach.Theyare:(i)productdevelopment,(ii)processdevelopment,(iii)processimprovementand(iv)applicationsdevelopment.Evenundertheseheadingsthereareamultitudeofaspectsoonlyatypicalexamplecanbequotedineachcase.Theemphasisoneachofthesewillvaryconsiderablywithinthedifferentsectorsofthechemicalindustry.Productdevelopment.Productdevelopmentthedevelopment.29

includesnotonlythediscoveryanddevelopmentofanewdrugbutalso,forexample,providinganewlonger-actinganti-oxidantadditivetoanautomobileengineoil.Developmentssuchasthishaveenabledservicingintervalstoincreaseduringthelastdecadefrom3000to6000to9000andnowto12000miles.Notethatmostpurchasersofchemicalsacquirethemfortheeffortsthattheyproduce,i.e.aspecificuse.TeflonTM,orploytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),maybepurchasedbecauseitimpartsanon-sticksurfacetocookingpotsandpans,therebymakingeasiertoclean.Processdevelopment.Processdevelopmentincludesnotonlythediscove30

covers

notonlydevelopmentamanufacturingprocessforanentirelynewproductbutalsoanewprocessorrouteforanexistingproduct.Thepushforthelattermayoriginateforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:availabilityofnewtechnology,changeintheavailabilityand/orcostofrawmaterials.Manufactureofvinylchloridemonomerisanexampleofthis.Itsmanufacturingroutehaschangedseveraltimesowingtochangingeconomics,technologyandrawmaterials.Anotherstimulusisamarkedincreaseindemandandhencesalesvolumewhichcanhaveamajoreffectontheeconomicsoftheprocess.Theearlydaysofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiaof

this.coversnotonly31TheabilityofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiainbattlewoundsduringtheSecondWorldWar(1939~1945)resultedinanenormousdemandforittobeproducedinquantity.Upuntilthenithadonlybeenproducedinsmallamountsonthesurfaceofthefermentationbrothinmilkbottles!AnenormousR&DeffortjointlyintheU.S.andtheU.K.resultedintwomajorimprovementstotheprocess.Firstlyadifferentstrain③ofthemould(penicilliumchrysogenum)gavemuchbetteryieldsthantheTheabilityofpenicillintop32originalpenicilliumnotatum.Secondlythemajorprocessdevelopmentwastheintroductionofthedeepsubmergedfermentationprocess.Herethefermentationtakesplacethroughoutthebroth,providedsterileairisconstantly,andvigorously,blownthroughit.Thishasenabledtheprocesstobescaledupenormouslytomodernstainlesssteelfermentershavingacapacityinexcessof50000liters.Itissalutarytonotethatinthefirstworldwar(1914-1919)moresoldiersdiedfromsepticemiaoftheirwoundsthanwereactuallykilledoutrightonthebattlefield!Processdevelopmentforanewproductdependsonthingssuchasthescaleonwhichitisoriginalpenicilliumnotat33

tobemanufactured,theby-productformedandtheirremoval/recovery,andrequiredpurity.Datewillbeacquiredduringthisdevelopmentstageusingsemi-technicalplant(upto100literscapacity)whichwillbeinvaluableinthedesignoftheactualmanufacturingplant.Iftheplantistobeaverylargecapacity,continuouslyoperatingone,e.g.petrochemicalorammonia,thenapilotplantwillfirstbebuiltandoperatetotestouttheprocessandacquiremoredata,thesesemi-technicalorpilotplantswillberequiredfortesting,e.g.,apesticide,orcustomerevaluation,e.g.,anewpolymer.Notethatby-productscanhaveamajorinfluenceontheeconomicsofachemicaltobemanufactured,34

process.Phenolmanufactureprovidesastrikingexampleofthis.Theoriginalroute,thebenzenesulphonicacidroute,hasbecomeobstaclebecausedemandforitsby-productsodiumsulfite(2.2tons/1tonphenol)hasdriedup.Itsrecoveryanddisposalwillthereforebeanadditionalchargeontheprocess,thusincreasingthecostofthephenol.Incontrastthecumenerouteowesitseconomicadvantageoveralltheotherroutetothestrongdemandfortheby-productacetone(0.6tons/1tonphenol).Thesaleofthisthereforereducesthenetcostofthephenol.Amajorpartoftheprocessdevelopmentactivityforanewplantistominimize,orideallyprocess.Phenolmanufacturep35

preventbydesigningout,wasteproductionandhencepossiblepollution.Theeconomicandenvironmentaladvantageofthisareobvious.Finallyitshouldbenotedthatprocessdevelopmentrequiresabigteameffortbetweenchemists,chemicalengineers,andelectricalandmechanicalengineerstobesuccessful.Processimprovement.Processimprovementrelatestoprocesseswhicharealreadyoperating.Itmaybeaproblemthathasarisenandstoppedproduction.Inthissituationthereisalotofpressuretofindasolutionassonaspossiblesothatproductioncanrestart,since'downtime‘costsmoney.preventbydesigningout,was36

Morecommonly,however,processimprovementwillbedirectedatimprovingtheprofitabilityoftheprocess.Thismightbeachievedinanumberofways.Forexample,improvingtheprofitabilityoftheprocess,increasingthecapacitybyintroductionanewcatalyst,orloweringtheenergyrequirementoftheprocess.AnexampleofthelatterwastheintroductionofturbocompressorsintheproductionofammoniabytheHaberprocess.Thisreducedutilitycosts(mainlyelectricity)from$6.66$0.56pertonofammoniaproduced.Improvingthequalityoftheproduct,byprocessmodification,mayleadtonewmarketsfortheproduct.Morecommonly,however,37

INrecentyears,themostimportantprocessimprovementactivityhasbeentoreducetheenvironmentalimpactoftheprocess,i.e.,topreventtheprocesscausinganyPollution.Clearlytherehavebeentwointerlinkeddrivingforcesforthis.Firstly,thepublic’sconcernaboutthesafetyofchemicalsandtheireffectontheenvironment.andthelegislationwhichhasfollowasaresultofthis.Secondlythecosttothemanufacturerofhavingtotreatwaste(i.e.,materialwhichcannotberecoveredandusedorsold)sothatitcanbesafelydisposedof,saybypumpingintoariver.Thisobviouslyrepresentsachargeontheprocesswhichwillincreasethecostofthechemicalbeingmade.Thepotentialforimprovementbyreducingtheamountofwasteisself-evident.INrecentyears,themos38

Note,however,withaplantwhichhasalreadybeenbuiltandisoperatingthereareusuallyonlyverylimitedphysicalchangeswhichcanbemadetotheplanttoachievetheaboveaims.Hencetheimportance,alreadymentioned,ofeliminatingwasteproductionatthedesignstageofanewplant.Conservingenergyandthusreducingenergycosthasbeenanothermajorpreoccupationinrecentyears(4)Applicationsdevelopment.Clearlythediscoveryo