英语教学论Chapter4-Teaching-of-Languag-eKnowledge1-Pronunciation-课件

Chapter4

TeachingPronunciationCuiJian2022/12/20Chapter4

TeachingPronunciat1Part1HowtoTeachPronunciationWarm-up:Whatroledoespronunciationplayinlanguagelearning?Whatisthegoalofteachingpronunciation?Whataspectsofpronunciationdoweneedtoteach?Howcanteachershelpthestudentstoimprovepronunciation?2022/12/20Part1HowtoTeachPronunciat2ContentsTheroleofpronunciationThegoalofteachingpronunciationAspectsofpronunciationPractisingsoundsPractisingstressPractisingintonationConclusion2022/12/20ContentsTheroleofpronunciat3QuestionsAgree/DisagreeStudentsneedtobeabletoreadInternationalPhoneticAlphabets(IPA).

StudentsneedtobeabletowriteInternationalPhoneticAlphabets(IPA).

StudentsneedtoknowphoneticsinordertolearnEnglish.

Poorpronunciationmaycauseproblemsforthelearningofotherskills.

Adultlearnersneedtofocusonpronunciation,butyounglearnersdon’t.

Bothconsistencyandaccuracyinpronunciationareveryimportant.

Stressandintonationarenotimportantforbeginninglearners.

StudentsshouldlearnReceivedPronunciation(RP).

Stressinpronunciationissometimesasimportantasgrammar.

Badintonationcanleadtoimportantmisunderstandings.

2022/12/20TheroleofpronunciationQuestionsAgree/DisagreeStudent4Whetherpronunciationneedsspecialattentionorfocusinlanguageteachingdependsonmanyfactors:LearnerswhosenativelanguagehassimilarsoundstoEnglisharelesslikelytohaveproblemswithpronunciationthanthosewhosenativelanguagehasverydifferentsoundsfromEnglish.LearnerswhohavemoreexposuretoEnglishneedlessfocusonpronunciationthanthosewhoonlylearnEnglishintheclass.AdultlearnersneedmorefocusonpronunciationbecausetheyaremorelikelytosubstituteEnglishsoundswithsoundsfromtheirnativelanguage.2022/12/20TheroleofpronunciationWhetherpronunciationneedssp5Ourconclusion:BeginningChineselearnersofEnglishneedacertaindegreeoffocusonpronunciation.Greatcareshouldbetakentothedistinctionbetweenpronunciationandphonetics.Theteachingofpronunciationshouldfocusonthestudents’abilitytoidentifyandproduceEnglishsoundsthemselves.PhoneticrulesregardingwhatsoundsaletteroraclusteroflettersshouldbepronouncedarehelpfulforstudentstodevelopabilitytocopewithEnglishpronunciationandtheyshouldbeintroducedatasuitablestage.Stressandintonationareasimportantasthesoundsthemselvesandshouldbetaughtfromtheverybeginning.2022/12/20TheroleofpronunciationOurconclusion:2022/12/19Ther6IdealGoal(native-likepronunciation)isimpracticalorunnecessary.Thereasonscanbethefollowing:CPH:CriticalPeriodHypothesisTheamountofexposuretoEnglishBiologicalandphysiologicaldifference2022/12/20ThegoalofteachingpronunciationIdealGoal(native-likepronunc7RealisticGoalSinceacquiringnative-likepronunciationisimpracticalandunnecessaryforouradultstudents,ourrealisticgoalofteachingpronunciationshouldbe:Consistency:thepronunciationshouldbesmoothandnatural.Intelligibility:thepronunciationshouldbeunderstandabletothelisteners.Communicativeefficiency:thepronunciationshouldhelpconveythemeaningthatisintendedbythespeaker.2022/12/20ThegoalofteachingpronunciationRealisticGoal2022/12/19Thego8Pronunciationisanumbrellatermcoveringmanyaspects,suchassoundsandphoneticsymbols,stress,intonation,andrhythm.Theseaspectsarenotisolatedfromeachother,butinterrelated.SoundsPhoneticsymbolsStressIntonationRhythm……2022/12/20TheaspectsofpronunciationPronunciationisanumbrellat9PractisingSounds2022/12/20Whataresounds?

Soundsarearticulationsmadebyanyvocalapparatus.Whatarespeechsounds?

Speechsoundsarevocalunitsinlanguagesystem.Speechorgans

Speechorgansarepartsofhumanbeingsinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.PractisingSounds2022/12/19Wha102022/12/20PractisingSounds2022/12/19PractisingSounds11voiceless2022/12/20PractisingSoundsWhenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.

Readthefollowingwords,please.

pair[p]sir[s]teacher[t]voiceless2022/12/19Practising12voicing2022/12/20PractisingSoundsWhentheyareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachotherandtheresultantsoundissaidtobevoiced.Readthefollowingwords,please.

bag[b]zero[z]desk[d]voicing2022/12/19PractisingSo13Glottalstop2022/12/20PractisingSoundsWhentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem.Theresultofthisgestureistheglottalstop[ŋ]Readthefollowingwords,please.studentpardoncaptainGlottalstop2022/12/19Practisi142022/12/20PractisingSounds2022/12/19PractisingSounds15Consonants:Iftheair,onceoutoftheglottis,isobstructed,partiallyortotally,inoneormoreplaces,thesoundisaconsonant.Vowels:Iftheair,onceoutoftheglottis,isallowedtopassfreelythroughtheresonators,thesoundisavowelsemi-vowelsorsemi-consonantsPractisingSoundsConsonants:PractisingSounds16MannersofArticulation:Itstudiestheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract.PlacesofArticulation:Itstudieswhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.

PractisingSoundsMannersofArticulation:Practi17PlosiveAplosiveisarticulatedwithcompleteclosureofthearticulatorssothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth.Threephasescanbedistinguished:Theclosingphase:Theairwayclosessothatnoaircanescapethroughthemouth.Theholdorcompressionphase:Theairwaystaysclosedcausingapressuredifferencetobuildup.Thereleasephase:Theclosureissuddenlyopened;thereleasedairflowproducesasuddenimpulsecausinganaudiblesound.PractisingSoundsPlosiveAplosiveisarticulate18NasalPlosiveAnasalisasoundproducedwhentheairisallowedtoescapethroughthenose,whileitsoralpassagemaybeblockedbythelipsortongue(anasalstop).Examples:monkeynoseking[m][n][ŋ]PractisingSoundsNasalPlosiveAnasalisasoun19FricativeFricativeconsonantsareproducedbyairflowingthroughanarrowchannelmadebyplacingtwoarticulatingorgansclosetogether.Example:

feetvarythanksoap[f][v][θ][s]PractisingSoundsFricativeFricativeconsonants20ApproximantApproximantsarespeechsoundsthatcouldberegardedasintermediatebetweenvowelsandtypicalconsonants.Inthearticulationofapproximants,articulatoryorgansproduceanarrowingofthevocaltract,butleaveenoughspaceforairtoflowwithoutaudibleturbulence—approximantsarethereforemoreopenthanfricatives.Example

yearredway[j][r][w]PractisingSoundsApproximantApproximantsaresp21LateralapproximantLateralapproximantispronouncedwithobstructionoftheairstreamatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.Example:late[l]PractisingSoundsLateralapproximantLateralapp22TrillAtrillisatypeofconsonantalsound,whichmeansitisproducedbyvibrationsofthetongueagainsttheplaceofarticulation.PractisingSoundsTrillAtrillisatypeofcons23TaporflapAflaportapisatypeofconsonantalsound,whichisproducedwithasinglecontractionofthemusclessothatonearticulatoristhrownagainstanother.Themaindifferencebetweenaflapandastopconsonantisthatinaflap,thereisnobuildupofairpressurebehindtheplaceofarticulation.PractisingSoundsTaporflapAflaportapisa24AffricateAnaffricateisacomplexspeechsoundconsistingofastopconsonantfollowedbyafricative.Example:childjoy

[tʃ][dʒ]PractisingSoundsAffricateAnaffricateisaco25BilabialAbilabialismadewiththetwolips.Examples:petbagmap[p][b][m]PractisingSoundsBilabialAbilabialismadewi26LabiodentalAlabiodentalisarticulatedwiththelowerlipsandtheupperteeth.Examples:fanvan[f][v]PractisingSoundsLabiodentalAlabiodentalisa27DentalAdentalisarticulatedwiththetiporbladeofthetonguenearoragainsttheupperteeth.Examples:thankthose[θ][ð]PractisingSoundsDentalAdentalisarticulated28Alveolar

Analveolarisarticulatedwiththetipofthetongueagainstthealveolarridge.Examples:tapdesknoserunsitzooleft[t][d][n][r][s][z][l]PractisingSoundsAlveolarAnalveolarisarticu29PostalveolarApostalveolarisarticulatedwiththetipofthetonguebetweenthealveolarridgeandthepalate.Examples:shipvisionjudgechild[ʃ][ʒ][dʒ][tʃ]PractisingSoundsPostalveolarApostalveolaris30RetroflexAretroflexisarticulatedwiththetipofthetonguecurledupandbacksothebottomofthetiptouchesthebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.Example:red[r]PractisingSoundsRetroflexAretroflexisartic31PalatalApalatalisarticulatedwiththemiddleorbackpartofthetongueraisedagainstthehardpalate.Example:

yes[j]PractisingSoundsPalatalApalatalisarticulat32VelarAvelarisarticulatedwiththebackpartofthetongueagainstthesoftpalate.Examples:kitegetsing[k][g][ŋ]PractisingSoundsVelarAvelarisarticulatedw33UvularAnuvularisarticulatedwiththebackofthetongueagainstorneartheuvula.PractisingSoundsUvularAnuvularisarticulate34PharyngealApharyngealisarticulatedwiththerootofthetongueagainstthepharynx.PractisingSoundsPharyngealApharyngealisart35GlottalAglottalisarticulatedwiththeglottis.Examples:

halfbeatenfat

[h][bin][fn]PractisingSoundsGlottalAglottalisarticulat36VowelsVowels:Iftheair,onceoutoftheglottis,isallowedtopassfreelythroughtheresonators,thesoundisavowel

Forexample:[e][i][u]PractisingSoundsVowelsVowels:PractisingSounds37PractisingSoundsPractisingSounds38Vowelsaredifferentiatedbysomefactors:

Thepositionofthetongue;Theopennessofthemouth;Theshapeofthelips;Thelengthofthevowels.PractisingSoundsVowelsaredifferentiatedbys39ThepositionofthetongueAfrontvowelisoneintheproductionofwhichthefrontpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition.[i:][i][e][][

]Acentralvowelisoneintheproductionofwhichthecentralpartofthetonguethatisheldhighest.[:][][]Thebackvowelsareproducedifweraisethebackofthetonguehigherthantherestofit.[u:][][:][][α:]PractisingSoundsThepositionofthetonguePrac40TheopennessofthemouthClosevowels[i:][i][u:][]Semi-closevowels[e][:]Semi-openvowels[][:]Openvowels[][

][][][

:]

PractisingSoundsTheopennessofthemouthPract41TheshapeofthelipsAllthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunrounded(withoutroundingthelips).

Allthebackvowelsareroundedwiththeexceptionof[

:].PractisingSoundsTheshapeofthelipsPractisin42ThelengthofthesoundTensevowels(longvowels)Whenwepronouncealongvowel,thelarynxisinastateoftension.Laxvowels(shortvowels)Whenwepronounceashortvowel,nosuchtensionoccurs,thelarynxisquiterelaxed.PractisingSoundsThelengthofthesoundPractis43Stress:Ineverymulti-syllablewordinEnglish,thereisonemainemphasisedsyllablewherethevowelsoundslongerandlouderthanotheradjacentsyllables,thisiscalledstress.Wordstress:Wordstressdetermineshowthelettersarepronouncedandsentencestressmakesitnecessarytopronouncewordsdifferentlyfromwhentheyarereadindividually.Sentencestress:Sentencestressmakesitnecessarytopronouncewordsdifferentlyfromwhentheyarereadindividually.2022/12/20PractisingStressStress:2022/12/19PractisingSt44Onesyllableinwordslongerthanasinglesyllableisstressedandthatsyllableissaidtohavetheprimarystress.Wordswrittenusingthephoneticscriptusean“'"infrontofthesyllabletoindicatetheprimarystress. Forexample

dic-tion⋅ar⋅y /'dɪk.ʃən.ɛr.i/

pho⋅ne⋅tic /fə.'nɛ.tɪk/

syll⋅a⋅ble /'sɪl.ə.bəl/2022/12/20PractisingStressOnesyllableinwordslongert45Takethreesimilarwords:photographphotographerphotographicWhenweaccentuateorstressjustONEsyllablethecharacterofthewordischanged..2022/12/20PractisingStressTakethreesimilarwords:2022/46inPHO-TO-GRAPH the1stsyllableisstressed/'fəʊ.tə.gra:f/inPHO-TO-GRAPH-ER the2ndsyllableisstressed /fə.'tɒ.grəf.ə/andinPHO-TO-GRAPH-IC the3rdsyllableisstressed /fəʊ.tə.'græf.ɪk/2022/12/20PractisingStressinPHO-TO-GRAPH2022/12/19Prac47Englishspeakersandlistenersrelyonstresstodrawattentiontothemostimportantandinformativeideasinthesentenceandtoclarifymeaning.Thewordsyouemphasisedependonwhichinformationyouwanttofocusonandarethereforeimportanttolisteners.Ifthewrongwordsareemphasised,listenerscanbequiteconfusedaboutyourmeaning.2022/12/20PractisingStressEnglishspeakersandlisteners48WithspokenEnglishsomecontentwordsreceiveextrastressThisstresscanchangetheunderlyingmeaningofthesentence.Thefullmeaningofanyutteranceisexpressedthroughthestressedwords.Evensimplesentencescanhaveseverallevelsofmeaning.2022/12/20PractisingStressWithspokenEnglishsomeconte49Thissimplesentencecanhavemanylevelsofmeaningbasedonthewordyoustress.Considerthemeaningofthefollowingsentences.ThestressedwordsareinLARGEPRINT.1)IDON'TTHINKHEWILLPASSTHEEXAMTOMORROW

Meaning:Somebodyelsethinkshecanpassthatexam.

2)IDON'TTHINKHEWILLPASSTHEEXAMTOMORROW.

Meaning:It'snottruethatIthinkhecanpasstheexam.2022/12/20PractisingStressThissimplesentencecanhave503) IDON'TTHINKHEWILLPASSTHEEXAMTOMORROW.

Meaning:Idon’tthinkhecanpasstheexambutInotsure.4) IDON'TTHINKHEWILLPASSTHEEXAMTOMORROW.

Meaning:Hecan’tpasstheexambutotherscan.

5) IDON'TTHINKHEWILLPASSTHEEXAMTOMORROW.

Meaning:Hecan’tpasstheexam.

2022/12/20PractisingStress3) IDON'TTHINKHEWILLPASS51Intonation:theriseandfallofthevoiceduringspeech.Threecommonly-seentunesinEnglish:A.thefallingtuneB.therisingtuneC:thefalling-risingtune2022/12/20PractisingIntonationIntonation:theriseandfall52Thefallingtune1.Ifthereisonlyoneword,whichisasingle-syllableword(e.g.èèèèNo.),inthewordgroup,thevoicefallswithinthesyllable.2.Ifthewordhasmorethanonesyllable(e.g.èèèèExcellent.),thevoiceeitherfallswithinthestressedsyllableorjumpsdownfromthatsyllabletothenext.2022/12/20PractisingIntonationThefallingtune1.Ifthereis53Thefallingtune2022/12/20PractisingIntonationThefallingtune2022/12/19Pra54Thefallingtune2022/12/20PractisingIntonationThefallingtune2022/12/19Pra55Therisingtune1.Ifthereisonlyoneword,whichisasingle-syllableword,inthewordgroup,thevoicerisesfromalowpitchtojustabovethemiddleofthevoice.2.Ifthelastimportantwordisfollowedbyoneormanyothersyllables,thestressedsyllableofthelastimportantwordislow,andeachfollowingsyllableisalittlehigher,thelastonebeingonafairlyhighnote.2022/12/20PractisingIntonationTherisingtune1.Ifthereis56Therisingtune2022/12/20PractisingIntonationTherisingtune2022/12/19Prac57Therisingtune2022/12/20PractisingIntonationTherisingtune2022/12/19Prac582022/12/20PractisingIntonation2022/12/19PractisingIntonatio592022/12/20PractisingIntonation2022/12/19PractisingIntonatio60ConclusionAsthequestionofhowmuchweshouldaimforstandardpronunciationandhowweshouldgoaboutteachingpronunciationisanon-goingdebateespeciallyintheeraofglobalizationwhenEnglishhasbecomeaninternationallanguage,teachersshouldbeawareofitandbesensitivetotheneedsofstudentswhenhelpingthemdevelopacceptablepronunciationforeffectivecommunication.2022/12/20ConclusionConclusionAsthequestion61SomesuggestionsUseindividual,pair,groupandwholeclassworktocreateapleasant,relaxed,anddynamicclassroom.Movearoundtheclassroomwhendoingchoralpractice.Varythecriteriaof“good”inpronunciationpracticetogivestudentsconfidence.Bringinterestsandvarietytothepracticeofpronunciation2022/12/20ConclusionSomesuggestionsUseindividual62SomesuggestionsItishelpfultodoarticulationpracticemorethanonce.Themaincriteriaforgoodpronunciationareconsistency,intelligibility,andcommunicativeefficiency.Donotrelyonexplanation,butmakefulluseofdemonstrations.Trytousevisualaids.2022/12/20ConclusionSomesuggestionsItishelpful63Chapter4

TeachingPronunciationCuiJian2022/12/20Chapter4

TeachingPronunciat64Part1HowtoTeachPronunciationWarm-up:Whatroledoespronunciationplayinlanguagelearning?Whatisthegoalofteachingpronunciation?Whataspectsofpronunciationdoweneedtoteach?Howcanteachershelpthestudentstoimprovepronunciation?2022/12/20Part1HowtoTeachPronunciat65ContentsTheroleofpronunciationThegoalofteachingpronunciationAspectsofpronunciationPractisingsoundsPractisingstressPractisingintonationConclusion2022/12/20ContentsTheroleofpronunciat66QuestionsAgree/DisagreeStudentsneedtobeabletoreadInternationalPhoneticAlphabets(IPA).

StudentsneedtobeabletowriteInternationalPhoneticAlphabets(IPA).

StudentsneedtoknowphoneticsinordertolearnEnglish.

Poorpronunciationmaycauseproblemsforthelearningofotherskills.

Adultlearnersneedtofocusonpronunciation,butyounglearnersdon’t.

Bothconsistencyandaccuracyinpronunciationareveryimportant.

Stressandintonationarenotimportantforbeginninglearners.

StudentsshouldlearnReceivedPronunciation(RP).

Stressinpronunciationissometimesasimportantasgrammar.

Badintonationcanleadtoimportantmisunderstandings.

2022/12/20TheroleofpronunciationQuestionsAgree/DisagreeStudent67Whetherpronunciationneedsspecialattentionorfocusinlanguageteachingdependsonmanyfactors:LearnerswhosenativelanguagehassimilarsoundstoEnglisharelesslikelytohaveproblemswithpronunciationthanthosewhosenativelanguagehasverydifferentsoundsfromEnglish.LearnerswhohavemoreexposuretoEnglishneedlessfocusonpronunciationthanthosewhoonlylearnEnglishintheclass.AdultlearnersneedmorefocusonpronunciationbecausetheyaremorelikelytosubstituteEnglishsoundswithsoundsfromtheirnativelanguage.2022/12/20TheroleofpronunciationWhetherpronunciationneedssp68Ourconclusion:BeginningChineselearnersofEnglishneedacertaindegreeoffocusonpronunciation.Greatcareshouldbetakentothedistinctionbetweenpronunciationandphonetics.Theteachingofpronunciationshouldfocusonthestudents’abilitytoidentifyandproduceEnglishsoundsthemselves.PhoneticrulesregardingwhatsoundsaletteroraclusteroflettersshouldbepronouncedarehelpfulforstudentstodevelopabilitytocopewithEnglishpronunciationandtheyshouldbeintroducedatasuitablestage.Stressandintonationareasimportantasthesoundsthemselvesandshouldbetaughtfromtheverybeginning.2022/12/20TheroleofpronunciationOurconclusion:2022/12/19Ther69IdealGoal(native-likepronunciation)isimpracticalorunnecessary.Thereasonscanbethefollowing:CPH:CriticalPeriodHypothesisTheamountofexposuretoEnglishBiologicalandphysiologicaldifference2022/12/20ThegoalofteachingpronunciationIdealGoal(native-likepronunc70RealisticGoalSinceacquiringnative-likepronunciationisimpracticalandunnecessaryforouradultstudents,ourrealisticgoalofteachingpronunciationshouldbe:Consistency:thepronunciationshouldbesmoothandnatural.Intelligibility:thepronunciationshouldbeunderstandabletothelisteners.Communicativeefficiency:thepronunciationshouldhelpconveythemeaningthatisintendedbythespeaker.2022/12/20ThegoalofteachingpronunciationRealisticGoal2022/12/19Thego71Pronunciationisanumbrellatermcoveringmanyaspects,suchassoundsandphoneticsymbols,stress,intonation,andrhythm.Theseaspectsarenotisolatedfromeachother,butinterrelated.SoundsPhoneticsymbolsStressIntonationRhythm……2022/12/20TheaspectsofpronunciationPronunciationisanumbrellat72PractisingSounds2022/12/20Whataresounds?

Soundsarearticulationsmadebyanyvocalapparatus.Whatarespeechsounds?

Speechsoundsarevocalunitsinlanguagesystem.Speechorgans

Speechorgansarepartsofhumanbeingsinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.PractisingSounds2022/12/19Wha732022/12/20PractisingSounds2022/12/19PractisingSounds74voiceless2022/12/20PractisingSoundsWhenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.

Readthefollowingwords,please.

pair[p]sir[s]teacher[t]voiceless2022/12/19Practising75voicing2022/12/20PractisingSoundsWhentheyareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachotherandtheresultantsoundissaidtobevoiced.Readthefollowingwords,please.

bag[b]zero[z]desk[d]voicing2022/12/19PractisingSo76Glottalstop2022/12/20PractisingSoundsWhentheyaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem.Theresultofthisgestureistheglottalstop[ŋ]Readthefollowingwords,please.studentpardoncaptainGlottalstop2022/12/19Practisi772022/12/20PractisingSounds2022/12/19PractisingSounds78Consonants:Iftheair,onceoutoftheglottis,isobstructed,partiallyortotally,inoneormoreplaces,thesoundisaconsonant.Vowels:Iftheair,onceoutoftheglottis,isallowedtopassfreelythroughtheresonators,thesoundisavowelsemi-vowelsorsemi-consonantsPractisingSoundsConsonants:PractisingSounds79MannersofArticulation:Itstudiestheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract.PlacesofArticulation:Itstudieswhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.

PractisingSoundsMannersofArticulation:Practi80PlosiveAplosiveisarticulatedwithcompleteclosureofthearticulatorssothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth.Threephasescanbedistinguished:Theclosingphase:Theairwayclosessothatnoaircanescapethroughthemouth.Theholdorcompressionphase:Theairwaystaysclosedcausingapressuredifferencetobuildup.Thereleasephase:Theclosureissuddenlyopened;thereleasedairflowproducesasuddenimpulsecausinganaudiblesound.PractisingSoundsPlosiveAplosiveisarticulate81NasalPlosiveAnasalisasoundproducedwhentheairisallowedtoescapethroughthenose,whileitsoralpassagemaybeblockedbythelipsortongue(anasalstop).Examples:monkeynoseking[m][n][ŋ]PractisingSoundsNasalPlosiveAnasalisasoun82FricativeFricativeconsonantsareproducedbyairflowingthroughanarrowchannelmadebyplacingtwoarticulatingorgansclosetogether.Example:

feetvarythanksoap[f][v][θ][s]PractisingSoundsFricativeFricativeconsonants83ApproximantApproximantsarespeechsoundsthatcouldberegardedasintermediatebetweenvowelsandtypicalconsonants.Inthearticulationofapproximants,articulatoryorgansproduceanarrowingofthevocaltract,butleaveenoughspaceforairtoflowwithoutaudibleturbulence—approximantsarethereforemoreopenthanfricatives.Example

yearredway[j][r][w]PractisingSoundsApproximantApproximantsaresp84LateralapproximantLateralapproximantispronouncedwithobstructionoftheairstreamatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.Example:late[l]PractisingSoundsLateralapproximantLateralapp85TrillAtrillisatypeofconsonantalsound,whichmeansitisproducedbyvibrationsofthetongueagainsttheplaceofarticulation.PractisingSoundsTrillAtrillisatypeofcons86TaporflapAflaportapisatypeofconsonantalsound,whichisproducedwithasinglecontractionofthemusclessothatonearticulatoristhrownagainstanother.Themaindifferencebetweenaflapandastopconsonantisthatinaflap,thereisnobuildupofairpressurebehindtheplaceofarticulation.PractisingSoundsTaporflapAflaportapisa87AffricateAnaffricateisacomplexspeechsoundconsistingofastopconsonantfollowedbyafricative.Example:childjoy

[tʃ][dʒ]PractisingSoundsAffricateAnaffricateisaco88BilabialAbilabialismadewiththetwolips.Examples:petbagmap[p][b][m]PractisingSoundsBilabialAbilabialismadewi89LabiodentalAlabiodentalisarticulatedwiththelowerlipsandtheupperteeth.Examples:fanvan[f][v]PractisingSoundsLabiodentalAlabiodentalis