雅思阅读机经拥挤人口

雅思阅读机 拥挤的人DensityandOfthegreatmyriadofproblemswhi anandtheworldfacetoday,therearethreesignificanttrendswhichstandaboveallothersinimportance:theunprecedentedpopulationgrowththroughouttheworld—anetincreaseof1,400,000peopleperweek—andallofitsassociationsandconsequences;theincreasingurbanizationofthesepeople,sothatmoreandmoreofthemarerushingintocitiesandurbanareasoftheworld;andthetremendousexplosionofcommunicationandsocialcontactthroughouttheworld,sothateverypartoftheworldisnowawareofeveryotherpart.Allofthesetrendsareproducingincreasedcrowdingandtheperceptionofcrowding.Itisimportanttoemphasizeattheoutsetthatcrowdinganddensityarenotnecessarilythesame.Densityisthenumberofindividualsperunitareaorunitspace.Itisasimplephysicalmeasurement.Crowdingisaproductofdensity,communication,contact,andactivity.Itimpliesapressure,aforce,andapsychologicalreaction.Itmayoccuratwidelydifferentdensities.Thefrontiersmanmayhavefeltcrowdedwhensomeonebuiltahomesteada away.Thesuburbanitemayfeelrelativelyuncrowdedinasmallhouseonahalf-acrelotifitissurroundedbytrees,bushes,andahedgerow,eventhoughhelivesundermuchhigherphysicaldensitythandidthefrontiersman.Hence,crowdingisverymuchapsychologicalandecologicalphenomenon,andnotjustaphysicalcondition.AclassiccrowdingstudywasdonebyCalhoun(1962),whoputratsintoaphysicalenvironmentdesigned modate50ratsandprovidedenoughfood,water,andnestingmaterialsforthenumberofratsintheenvironment.Theratpopulationpeakedat80,providingalookatcrampedlivingconditions.Althoughtheratsexperiencednoresourcelimitationsotherthanspacerestriction,anumberofnegativeconditionsdeveloped:thetwomostdominantmalestookharemsofseveralfemaleratsandoccupiedmorethantheirshareofspace,leavingotherratsevenmorecrowded;manyfemalesstoppedbuildingnestsandabandonedtheirinfantrats;thepregnancyratedeclined;infantandadultmortalityratesincreased;moreaggressiveandphysicalattacksoccurred;sexualvariationincreased,includinghypersexuality,inhibitedsexuality,homosexuality,andbisexuality.Calhoun'sresultshaveledtootherresearchoncrowding'seffectsonhumanbeings,andtheseresearchfindingshavesuggestedthathighdensityisnotthesinglecauseofnegativeeffectsonhumans.Whencrowdingisdefinedonlyintermsofspatialdensity(theamountofspaceper ),theeffectsofcrowdingarevariable.However,ifcrowdingisdefinedintermsofsocialdensity,orthenumberofpeoplewhomustinteract,thencrowdingbetterpredictsnegativepsychologicalandphysicaleffects.Thereareseveralreasonswhycrowdingmakesusfeel fortable.Onereasonisrelatedtostimulusoverload-therearejusttoomanystimulicompetingforourattention.Wecannotnoticeorrespondtoallofthem.Thisfeelingistypicaloftheharriedmother,whohasseveralchildrencompetingforherattention,whilesheisonthephoneandthedoorbellisringing.Thisleavesherfeelingconfused,fatiguedandyearningtowithdrawfromthesituation.Therearestrongfeelingsofalackofprivacy—beingunabletopayattentiontowhatyouwantwithoutbeingrepeatedlyinterruptedorobservedbyothers.Fieldstudiesdoneinavarietyofsettingsillustratethatsocialdensityisassociatedwithnegativeeffectsonhumanbeings.Inprisonstudies,malesgenerallybecamemoreaggressivewithincreasesindensity.Inmaleprison,inmateslivinginconditionsofhigherdensitiesweremorelikelytosufferfromfight.Malesratedthemselvesasmoreaggressiveinsmallrooms(asituationofhighspatialdensity),whilstthefemalesratedthemselvesasmoreaggressiveinlargerooms(Stokolsetal.,1973).Thesedifferencesrelatetothe alspacerequirementsoftders.Besides,BaumandGreenbergfoundthathighdensityleadstodecreasedattraction,bothphysicalattractionandlikingtowardsothersanditappearstohavegenderdifferencesintheimpactthatdensityhasonattractionlevels,withmalesexperiencingamoreextremereaction.Also,thegreaterthedensityis,thelessthehelbehavior.Onereasonwhythelevelofhelbehaviormaybereducedincrowdedsituationslinkstotheconceptofdiffusionofresponsibility.Themorepeoplethatarepresentinasituationthatrequireshelp,thelessoftenhelpisgiven.Thismaybeduetothefactthatpeoplediffuseresponsibilityamongthemselveswithno-onefeelingthattheyoughttobetheonetohelp.Facingalltheseproblems,whatarewegoingtodowiththem?Themorecontrolahasoverthecrowdedenvironmentthelessnegativelytheyexperienceit,thustheperceivedcrowdingisless(SidtandKeating).Theabilitytocopewithcrowdingisalsoinfluencedbytherelationshiptheindividualhaswiththeotherpeopleinthesituation.Thehighdensitywillbeinterpretedlessnegativelyiftheindividualexperiencesitwithpeoplehelikes.Oneofthemaincostrategiesemployedtolimittheimpactofhighdensityissocialwithdrawal.Thisincludesbehaviorssuchasavertingthegazeandusingnegativebodylanguagetoattempttoblockanypotentialintrusions.Questions1-Readingpassage1hassevenparagraphs,A-ChoosethecorrectheadingforparagraphsA-GfromthelistofheadingsListofOtherexperimentsonthebaseofCalboun’sTheeffectsofcrowdingonPsychologicalreactiontoProblemsthatresultinResponsibilitydoesnotWhatcausetheupsetfeelofDefinitionsofcrowdingandAdviceforcrowdedworkDifferencebetweenmaleandNatureandresultsofCalboun’sParagraphParagraphParagraphParagraphParagraphParagraphParagraphQuestions8-CompletethesentencesChooseNOMORETHANTHREEWORDSfromthepassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersin