语言学概论期末复习(男神版)

语言学概论期末复习(男神版)语言学概论期末复习(男神版)语言学概论期末复习(男神版)V:1.0精细整理，仅供参考语言学概论期末复习(男神版)日期：20xx年X月语言学概论Chapter1

InvitationstoLinguisticsWhatislanguage?SensesoflanguageinWebster’sNewWorldDictionary(ourbook,p.2)“Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.“(Wardaugh)Designfeaturesoflanguage语言设计特征1.arbitrariness(任意性)2.duality(双重性)3.Creativity(创造性)orproductivity4.displacement(移位性)5.interchangeability(互换性)6.specialization(专业化)7.culturaltransmission（文化传承）FunctionsofLanguage(语言功能)Jakobson’sview:1.Emotive(情感功能)2.Referential（指代功能)3.Poetic(诗学功能)4.Phatic（寒暄功能）5.Metalingual(元语言)6.Conative(意动功能)Halliday’sview:1.ideationalfunction(概念功能)2.Interpersonalfunction（人际功能）3.Textualfunction（语篇功能）Functionsonthebook:1.informative(告知性的)2.InterpersonalFunction(人际功能)3.Performative(行事功能)4.EmotiveFunction5.PhaticCommunion（寒暄功能）6.RecreationalFunction(娱乐功能)7.MatalingualFunction(元语言功能)4．WhatIsLinguisticsLinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageorthescienceoflanguage.1)Exhaustiveness（穷尽性）2)Consistency（贯通性）3)Economy（经济性）4)Objectivity（客观性）5.Competencevs.performance

言语能力vs.言语行为NoamChomskyinhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax.Competencereferstoalanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Chapter2SpeechsoundsConsonantsandvowelsDistinctionbetweenconsonantsandvowels:theobstruction（阻塞）ofairstreamMinimalpairsandminimalsets（最小对立体）①Whentwowordsareidenticalineverywayexceptforacontrastinonesoundsegmentoccurringinthesamepositioninthestring,thetwowordsarecalledaminimalpair最小对立体.E.g:pitandbitjunkandchunkbanandbinbetandbat②Aminimalpairshouldfollowthreeconditions:1)theyaredifferentinmeaning;2)theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment;3)thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.Chapter3FrommorphemetophraseRoot&affixRoot词根:1.amorphemewhichisthebasicpartofaword.（Occuronitsown、maybejoinedtootherroots、ortakeaffixes(manly,coldness)orcombiningforms(biochemistry)2Itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.AllwordscontainarootmorphemeAffix词缀:1.aletterorsound,orgroupoflettersorsounds(=amorpheme),whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword.（Prefix前缀,Suffix后缀，infix中缀：feet，geese）2.inflectionalaffix曲折词缀andderivationalaffix派生词缀Chapter5MeaningTheReferentialTheory(所指理论)①Thetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.②Reference所指referstotherelationshipbetweenawordandtheobjectitdenotesinthephysicalworld,i.e.denotation外延inphilosophy.③Isaverypopulartheory(semantictrianglebyOgdenandRichardsinMeaningofMeaning)④Problemswiththistheory：Noteverywordhasareference所指.Senserelations意义关系Sensemaybedefinedasthesemanticrelationsbetweenonewordandanother,ormoregenerallybetweenonelinguisticunitandanother.*distinctionsbetweensenseandreference:ThedistinctionbetweensenseandreferenceiscomparabletothatbetweenconnotationanddenotationinphilosophyTheformerreferstotheabstractpropertiesofanentity,whilethelatterreferstotheconcreteentitieshavingtheseproperties.Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.Referenceinitswidersensewouldbetherelationshipbetweenawordorphraseandanentityintheexternalworld.Sosenseisintra-linguisticandreferenceisextra-llinguistic3kindsofsenserelations:Synonymy（同义关系）Semanticrelationofsamenessorsimilarityinmeaningoftwoormorelinguisticexpressions.（absolutesynonyms绝对同义词、relativesynonyms相对同义词、Stylisticsynonyms文体同义词、Emotivesynonyms情感同义词、Collocationalsynonyms：搭配同义词）Antonymy（反义关系）Relationofsemanticopposition.threemainsub-types：1）Gradableantonymy（等级反义关系）：Theyaregradable;thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.Thereisanintermediategroundbetweenthetwo.（hot\coldwarm\cooltall\shortbig\small）Complementaryantonymy（互补反义关系）Themembersofapairinthistypearecomplementarytoeachother.Thereisnointermediategroundbetweenthetwo.（alive\deadodd\evensingle\marriedmale\femalepass\failhit\miss）Converseantonymy（相反反义关系）Themembersofapairinthistypeshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.Theyarealsoknownasrelationalopposites.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.（buy\sellgive\receivehusband\wifeteacher\studentabove\belowbefore\after）Hyponymy（上下义关系）Arelationshipbetweentwowords,inwhichthemeaningofoneofthewordsincludesthemeaningoftheotherword.Sometimesasuperordinatemaybeasuperordinatetoitself.Asuperordinatemaybemissingsometimes.（redgreenyellow）Hyponymsmayalsobemissing.（unclerice）4.Componentialanalysis(成分分析)Componentialanalysis:(insemantics)anapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Usually,componentialanalysisisappliedtoagroupofrelatedwordswhichmaydifferfromoneanotheronlybyoneortwocomponents.Semanticfeatures语义特征orsemanticcomponentsarethebasicunitofmeaninginaword.Themeaningsofwordsmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticfeatures.5.Anintegratedtheory（整体理论）Theideathatthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombinedisusuallyknownastheprincipleofcompositionality(复合性原则）adictionaryasemantictheoryasetofprojectionrules投射规则Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationofwords.Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.(P.107)Chapter6Languageandcognition1.WhatiscognitionTwodefinitionsaboutcognition:Inpsychologyitreferstothementalprocessesofanindividualwithparticularrelationtotheviewthatarguesthatthemindhasinternalstates(beliefs,desires,andintentions)andcanbeunderstoodintermsofinformationprocessing.Mentalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgement.Whatispsycholinguistics（心理语言学）Definition：isthestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguages;itusuallystudiesthepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.6subjectsofresearchwithinpsycholinguistics:Acquisition(语言习得)Comprehension(语言理解)LanguageandthoughtProduction(语言产出)Disorders（语言无序性）NeurocognitionWhatisCognitiveLinguistics?Definition:isanewlyestablishedapproachtothestudyoflanguage.Chapter7Language,cultureandSocietyLanguageandCultureWhatisculture:Culture,inabroadsense,meansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc.TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureAlanguagenotonlyexpressesfacts,ideas,oreventswhichrepresentsimilarworldknowledgebyitspeople,butalsoreflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooksetc.Inaword,languageexpressesculturalreality.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis(萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设)SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.Thishypothesisprimarilysuggeststhatourlanguagewillmouldourviewoftheworld.Butfewpeoplewouldtendtoaccepttheoriginalforthistheory.Thus,twoversions,strongversionandweakversionhavebeendeveloped.thestrongversion:thelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior.theweakversion:theformerinfluencesthelatter.LanguageandsocietyDefinitionofsociolinguistics(社会语言学):Sociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety：1)Whilelanguageisprincipallyusedtocommunicatemeaning,itisalsousedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.2)Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently.Thekindoflanguageeachofthemchoosestouseisinpartdeterminedbyhissocialbackground.3)Tosomeextent,language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety4)Judgmentsconcerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesaresocialratherthanlinguistic.4.Halliday’sregistertheory:Definitionofregister（语域）:Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Fieldofdiscourse（语场）referstowhatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguage.Tenorofdiscourse（语旨）refers“towhomthespeakeriscommunicating”Modeofdiscourse（语式）mainlyreferstothemeansofcommunication.Chapter8LanguageinuseWhatisPragmaticsthestudyoflanguageinuse.Speechacttheory1)Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse,whichoriginatedwiththeOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustin:HowtoDoThingswithWords2)Speechact:anutterance(表达)asafunctionalunitincommunication.Inspeechacttheory,utteranceshavetwokindsofmeaning:propositionalmeaning命题意义(alsoknownaslocutionarymeaning发话意义)illocutionarymeaning行事意义(alsoknownasillocutionaryforce行事语力).Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaningandillocutionaryforce.3)2typesofsentences:Performatives（施为句；行事话语）:anutterancewhichperformsanactConstative（表述句；述事话语）:anutterancewhichassertssomethingthatiseithertrueorfalse.*Ithasevenbeensuggestedthatthereisnorealdifferencebetweenconstativeandimplicitperformatives.Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.3.Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact(行事行为理论)Threedifferenttypesofactinvolvedinorcausedbytheutteranceofasentence:Locutionaryact（发话行为）isthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.Illocutionaryact（行事行为）isusingasentencetoperformafunction，relatedtothespeaker’sintention.Perlocutionaryact（取效行为）istheresultoreffectsthatareproducedbymeansofsayingsomething.4.CategoriesofspeechactsbySearle1.Representative（阐述类）:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue(e.g.Iswear…)2.Directives（指令类）:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.(e.g.Yourmoneyoryourlife.)3.Commissives（承诺类）:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.(e.g.Ipromise..)4.Expressive（表情类）:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate(e.g.Thankyou…)5.Declarations（宣告类）:bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.(e.g.youarefired...)5.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicature会话含义理论ThesecondmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuseproposedbyHerbertPaulGrice:LogicandConversation.1)Definition:Conversationalimplicatureisatypeofmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims2)Characteristicsofimplicature:calculability（可计算性）cancellability/defeasibility（可删除性/可取消性）Non-detachability（非可分离性）Non-conventionality（非规约性）1.Thecooperativeprinciple合作原则:Theco-operationbetweenspeakersinusingtheconversationalmaximsiscalledthecooperativeprinciple.2.Conversationalmaxim对话准则:anunwrittenruleaboutconversationwhichpeopleknowandwhichinfluencestheformofconversationalexchangesGriceintroduced4categoriesofmaxims:a.themaximofQuantityb.themaximofQualityc.themaximofRelationd.themaximofManner6.Post-Griceandevelopments1)Relevancetheory关联理论Definition:Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.（每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该行为本身具备最适宜关联）2)theQ-andR-principleThesetwoprinciplewasproposedbyLaurenceHornTheQ-principleisintendedtoinvokethefirstmaximofGrice’sQuantity,andtheR-principletheRelationmaxim,butthenewprinciplesaremoreextensivethantheGriceanmaxims.HornreducesalltheGriceanmaximstotwoprinciples:theQ-andR-principleA.TheQ-principle(hearer-based):MakeyourcontributionsufficientSayasmuchasyoucanB.TheR-principle(speaker-based):MakeyourcontributionnecessarySaynomorethanyoumustInotherwords,theQ-principleisconcernedwiththecontent.TheR-principle,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwiththeform.Chapter11LinguisticandForeignLanguageTeachingDefinition:SLA:Secondlanguageacquisition二语习得CPH:CriticalPeriodHypothesis关键期假设UG：UniversalGrammar普遍语法LAD：LanguageAcquisitionDevice语言习得基质IL：Interlanguage中介语CA：ContrastiveAnalysis对比分析EA:ErrorAnalysis错误分析2．UniversalGrammar普遍语法Universalgrammarholdsthattherearecertainbasicstructuralrulesthatgovernlanguagethatallhumansknowwithouthavingtolearnthem.3.InputandlanguagelearningLanguageAcquisitionDevice语言习得基质Krashen’sInputHypothesisThere