英语语言学概论

.PAGE.>Chapter1Language语言Designfeature(识别特征)referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Productivity(能产性)referstotheabilitythatpeoplehaveinmakingandcomprehendingindefinitelylargequantitiesofsentencesintheirnativelanguage.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrarinessreferstothephenomenonthatthereisnomotivatedrelationshipbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.symbol(符号)Symbolreferstosomethingsuchasanobject,word,orsoundthatrepresentssomethingelsebyassociationorconvention.discreteness(离散性)Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.displacement(不受时空限制的特性)Displacementreferstothefactthathumanlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarenotintheimmediatesituationsofitsusers.dualityofstructure(构造二重性)Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels,oneofsounds,theotherofmeaning,isknownasdualityofstructure.culturetransmission(文化传播)Culturetransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothene*tthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyerchangeability(互换性)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.*Whatislanguage"Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.First,languageisasystem.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesense.Thethirdfeatureoflanguageissymbolicnature. *Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage"Languagehassevendesignfeaturesasfollowing:1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement4)Arbitrariness.5)Culturaltransmission6)Dualityofstructure.7)Interchangeability.Whydowesaylanguageisasystem"Becauseelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules,andeverylanguagecontainsasetofrules.Bysystem,therecurringpatternsorarrangementsortheparticularwaysordesignsinwhichalanguageoperates.Andthesounds,thewordsandthesentencesareusedinfi*edpatternsthatspeakerofalanguagecanunderstandeachother.*(Functionoflanguage.)AccordingtoHalliday,whataretheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage"Andwhatarethethreefunctionalcomponentsofadultlanguage"Hallidayusesthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage:1)Instrumentalfunction.工具功能2)Regulatoryfunction.调节功能3)Representationalfunction.表现功能4)Interactionalfunction.互动功能5)Personalfunction.自指性功能6)Heuristicfunction.启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7)Imaginativefunction.想象功能Adultlanguagehasthreefunctionalcomponentsasfollowing:1)Interpersonalcomponents.人际2)Ideationalcomponents.概念3)Te*tualChapter2Linguistics语言学generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学)Theformerdealswithlanguageingeneralwhereasthelatterisconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage.synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学)Diachroniclinguisticstracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofthelanguageandrecordsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetweensuccessivepointsintime.Andsynchroniclinguisticspresentsanaccountoflanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime.theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics(理论语言学与应用语言学)Theformercopeswithlanguageswithaviewtoestablishingatheoryoftheirstructuresandfunctionswhereasthelatterisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsandfindingsoflinguisticstoallsortsofpracticaltasks.microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)Theformerstudiesonlythestructureoflanguagesystemwhereasthelatterdealswitheverythingthatisrelatedtolanguages.langueandparole(语言与言语)Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhereasthelatterreferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationbyanindividualpetenceandperformance(语言能力与语言运用)Theformerisone’sknowledgeofallthelinguisticregulationsystemswhereasthelatteristheuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.speechandwriting(口头语与书面语)Speechisthespokenformoflanguagewhereaswritingiswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscope.linguisticsbehaviorpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior(语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)Peopleactuallysaysonacertainoccasiontoacertainpersonisactuallinguisticsbehavior.Andeachofpossiblelinguisticitemsthathecouldhavesaidislinguisticbehaviorpotential.syntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系)Theformerdescribesthehorizontaldimensionofalanguagewhilethelatterdescribestheverticaldimensionofalanguage.verbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunication(言语交际与非言语交际)Usualuseoflanguageasameansoftransmittinginformationiscalledverbalcommunication.Thewaysweconveymeaningwithoutusinglanguageiscallednon-verbalcommunication.*HowdoesJohnLyonsclassifylinguistics"AccordingtoJohnLyons,thefieldoflinguisticsasawholecanbedividedintoseveralsubfieldsasfollowing:1)Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics.2)Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics.3)Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.4)Microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics.E*plainthethreeprinciplesbywhichthelinguistisguided:consistency,adequacyandsimplicity.1)Consistencymeansthatthereshouldbenocontradictionsbetweendifferentpartsofthetheoryandthedescription.2)Adequacymeansthatthetheorymustbebroadenoughinscopetooffersignificantgeneralizations.3)Simplicityrequiresustobeasbriefandeconomicaspossible.*Whatarethesub-branchesoflinguisticswithinthelanguagesystem"Withinthelanguagesystemtherearesi*sub-branchesasfollowing:1)Phonetics.语音学isastudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.2)Phonology.音位学studiesaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofaspeaker’snativelanguage.3)Morphology.形态学studiesabouthowawordisformed.4)Synta*.句法学studiesaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.5)Semantics.语义学studiesaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofsentences.6)Pragmatics.语用学*Thescopeoflanguage:Linguisticsisreferredtoasascientificstudyoflanguage.*Thescientificprocessoflinguisticstudy:Itinvolvesfourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions.

Chapter3Phonetics语音学articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)Thestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.acousticphonetics(声学语音学)Thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)Thestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.consonant(辅音)Consonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairformthelanguageiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblocked,orwheretheopeningbetweenthespeechorgansissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.vowel(元音)isdefinedasaspeechsoundinwhichtheairfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayandispronouncedwithvocal-cordvibration.bilabials(双唇音)Bilabialsmeansthatconsonantsforwhichtheflowofairisstoppedorrestrictedbythetwolips.[p][b][m][w]affricates(塞擦音)Thesoundproducedbystoppingtheairstreamandthenimmediatelyreleasingitslowlyiscalledaffricates.[t*][dY][tr][dr]glottis(声门)Glottisisthespacebetweenthevocalcords.roundedvowel(圆唇元音)Roundedvowelisdefinedasthevowelsoundpronouncedbythelipsformingacircularopening.[u:][u][OB][O]diphthongs(双元音)Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.[ei][ai][Oi][Qu][au]triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongsarethosewhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherandthenrapidlyandcontinuouslytoathirdone.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ][QuQ][auQ]la*vowels(松元音)Accordingtodistinctionoflongandshortvowels,vowelsareclassifiedtensevowelsandla*vowels.Allthelongvowelsaretensevowelsbutoftheshortvowels,[e]isatensevowelaswell,andtherestshortvowelsarela*vowels.1.*Howareconsonantsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria"TheconsonantsinEnglishcanbedescribedintermsoffourdimensions.Thepositionofthesoftpalate.Thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration.Theplaceofarticulation.Themannerofarticulation.*Howarevowelsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria"Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors.ThestateofthevelumThepositionofthetongue.Theopennessofthemouth.Theshapeofthelips.Thelengthofthevowels.Thetensionofthemusclesatpharyn*.*Whatarethethreesub-branchesofphonetics"Howdotheydifferfromeachother"Phoneticshasthreesub-branchesasfollowing:Articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.Acousticphoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.*Whatarethecommonlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsandvowelsrespectively"I.Thefrequentlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsincludethefollowing:Voiced.Nasal.Consonantal.Vocalic.Continuant.Anterior.Coronal.Aspirated.II.Themostcommonphoneticfeaturesforvowelsincludethefollowing:High.Low.Front.Back.Rounded.Tense.

Chapter4Phonology音位学phonemes(音位)Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.allophones(音位变体)Allophonesarethephoneticvariantsandrealizationsofaparticularphoneme.phones(单音)Thesmallestidentifiablephoneticunitfoundinastreamofspeechiscalledaphone.minimalpair(最小对立体)Minimalpairmeanswordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.contrastivedistribution(比照分布)Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincontrastiveplementarydistribution(互补分布)Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thentheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.freevariation(自由变异)Whentwosoundscanappearinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotcauseanychangeinmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.distinctivefeatures(区别性特征)Adistinctivefeatureisafeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.tonelanguages(声调语言)Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordonationlanguages(语调语言)Intonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel.juncture(连音)Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaydemarcategrammaticalunits.1.*WhatarethedifferencesbetweenEnglishphoneticsandEnglishphonology"Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,whilephonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.Phoneticsisthestudyoftheactualsoundswhilephonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeechsoundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatterns.Givee*amplestoillustratetherelationshipbetweenphonemes,phonesandallophones.Whenwehear[pit],[tip],[spit],etc,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare/p/.And/p/and/b/areseparatephonemesinEnglish,while[ph]and[p]areallophones.Howcanwedecideaminimalpairoraminimalset"Aminimalpairshouldmeetthreeconditions:Thetwoformsaredifferentinmeaning.Thetwoformsaredifferentinonesoundsegment.Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositionofthetwostrings.*Usee*amplestoe*plainthethreetypesofdistribution.Contrastivedistribution.Sounds[m]inmetand[n]innetareincontrastivedistributionbecausesubstituting[m]for[n]willresultinachangeofmeaning.Complementarydistribution.Theaspiratedplosive[ph]andtheunaspiratedplosive[p]areincomplementarydistributionbecausetheformeroccurseitherinitiallyinawordorinitiallyinastressedsyllablewhilethelatterneveroccursinsuchenvironments.Freevariation.InEnglish,theword"direct〞maybepronounceintwoways:/di’rekt/and/dia’rekt/,andthetwodifferentsounds/i/and/ai/canbesaidtobeinfreevariation.What’sthedifferencebetweensegmentalfeaturesandsuprasegmentalfeatures"WhatarethesuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglish"I.1)Distinctivefeatures,whichareusedtodistinguishonephonemefromanotherandthushaveeffectononesoundsegment,arereferredtoassegmentalfeatures.2)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.3)Suprasegmentalfeaturesmayhaveeffectonmorethanonesoundsegment.Theymayapplytoastringofseveralsounds.II.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,tone,intonationandjuncture.What’sthedifferencebetweentonelanguagesandintonationlanguage"Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevelwhileintonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel*What’sthedifferencebetweenphonetictranscriptionsandphonemictranscriptions"Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallpossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciation,whilethelatterwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.

Chapter5Morphology形态学morphemes(语素)Morphemesaretheminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.allomorphs(语素变体)Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.morphs(形素)Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandaretheactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes.roots(词根)Rootsisdefinedasthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.affi*es(词缀)Affi*esaremorphemesthatle*icallydependonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.freemorphemes(自由语素)Freemorphemesarethosewhichcane*istasindividualwords.boundmorphemes(粘着语素)Boundmorphemesarethosewhichcannotoccurontheirownasseparatewords.inflectionalaffi*es(屈折词缀)refertoaffi*esthatservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,butdonotchangeitspartofspeech.derivationalaffi*es(派生词缀)refertoaffi*esthatareaddedtowordsinordertochangeitsgrammaticalcategoryoritsmeaning.emptymorph(空语子)Emptymorphmeansamorphwhichhasformbutnomeaning.zeromorph(零语子)Zeromorphreferstoamorphwhichhasmeaningbutnoform.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguistice*pression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.immediateconstituents(直接成分)Aimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstruction.Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.ultimateconstituents(最后成分)Ultimateconstituentsarethosegrammaticallyirreducibleunitsthatconstituteconstructions.morphologicalrules(形态学规则)Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.word-formationprocess(构词法)Word-formationprocessmeantherule-governedprocessesofformingnewwordsonthebasisofalreadye*istinglinguisticresources.1.*WhatisICAnalysis"ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguistice*pression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.Howaremorphemesclassified"Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintotwocategories:rootmorphemesandaffi*ationalmorphemes.Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintotwotypes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.*E*plaintheinterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes.Allfreemorphemesarerootsbutnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.Allaffi*esareboundmorphemes,butnotallboundmorphemesareaffi*es.What’sthedifferencebetweenanemptymorphandazeromorph"Emptymorphmeansamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.Zeromorphreferstoamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform.E*plainthedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffi*esintermofbothfunctionandposition.Functionally:Inflectionalaffi*essevertomarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercreatenewwordswhilederivationalaffi*escancreatenewwords.Inflectionalaffi*esdonotcauseachangeingrammaticalclasswhilederivationalaffi*esveryoftenbutnotalwayscauseachangeingrammaticalclass.Intermofposition:Inflectionalaffi*esaresuffi*eswhilederivationalaffi*escanbesuffi*esorprefi*es.Inflectionalaffi*esarealwaysafterderivationalaffi*esifbotharepresent.Andderivationalaffi*esarealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffi*esifbotharepresent.Whataremorphologicalrules"Giveatleastfourruleswithe*amples.Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.Fore*ample:un-+adj.->adj.Adj./n.+-ify->v.V.+-able->adj.Adj.+-ly->adv.Chapter6Synta*句法学syntagmaticrelations(横组关系)refertotherelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.paradigmaticrelations(纵聚合关系)refertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.hierarchicalrelations(等级关系)refertorelationshipsbetweenanyclassificationoflinguisticunitswhichrecognizesaseriesofsuccessivelysubordinatelevels.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction.labeledICAnalysis(标记法直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstructionandlabeleachconstituent.phrasemarkers(短语标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction,andlabeleachconstituentwhileremoveallthelinguisticforms.labeledbracketing(方括号标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichisappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbrackets.constituency(成分关系)dependency(依存关系)surfacestructures(表层构造)referstothementalrepresentationofalinguistice*pression,derivedfromdeepstructurebytransformationalrules.deepstructures(深层构造)deepstructureofalinguistice*pressionisatheoreticalconstructthatseekstounifyseveralrelatedstructures.phrasestructurerules(短语构造规则)areawaytodescribeagivenlanguage'ssynta*.Theyareusedtobreakanaturallanguagesentencedownintoitsconstituentparts.transformationalrules(转换规则)structuralambiguity(构造歧义)Whatarethedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure"Theyaredifferentfromeachotherinfouraspects:Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentenceswhiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences.Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.IllustratethedifferencesbetweenPSrulesandT-rules.1)PSrulesfrequentlyappliedingeneratingdeepstructures.2)T-rulesareusedtotransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructures.What’stheorderofgeneratingsentences"Dowestartwithsurfacestructuresorwithdeepstructures"Howdifferentlyaretheygenerated"Togenerateasentence,wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructure,andthentransformitintoitscorrespondingsurfacestructure.Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(PSrules)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules(T-rules).What’sthedifferencebetweenacompulsoryconstituentandanoptionalone"Optionalconstituentsmaybepresento