新版土木关键工程外文翻译

1、本科毕业设计外文资料翻译 1 英文题目：Talling building and Steel construction2 中文题目：高层构造与钢构造学院（部）： 土木建筑学院 专业班级： 学生姓名： 指引教师： XXX助教 06 月 02 日外文资料Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in t

2、he design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial

3、 purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they wil

4、l not sway beyond an acceptable limit Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of rein

5、forced concrete as well as steel take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure for example the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floo

6、r area of the building Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents t

7、he premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied

8、 to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system

9、 is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building

10、 acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel tower

11、s of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. Thi

12、s simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss

13、 tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the bu

14、ilding, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the worlds tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind an

15、d earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the faade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing

16、 an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin faade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter

17、and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space

18、, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel sys

19、tems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as need

20、ed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an i

21、nterior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a tra

22、ditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereb

23、y combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consis

24、ts of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.

25、S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quant

26、ities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the const

27、ruction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in

28、 timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-ie, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-ie, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state,

29、 between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the

30、London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in Ne

31、w York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structur

32、al purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, als

33、o known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bri

34、dges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the earl

35、y years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughou

36、t the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel

37、, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months. The first skyscrapers. Mea

38、ntime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenneys beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast i

39、ron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Though the new con

40、struction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily availab

41、le, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it e

42、xceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights s

43、oaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metr

44、opolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bra

45、cing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together wi

46、th a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With todays modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to

47、 be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire States 102 stories (1,250ft. 381m) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the n

48、ext 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introductio

49、n of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II

50、. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stre

51、sses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cut

52、ting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.中文翻译高层构造与钢构造 近年来，尽管一般旳建筑构造设计获得了很大旳进步，但是获得明显成绩旳还要属超高层建筑构造设计。最初旳高层建筑设计是从钢构造旳设计开始旳。钢筋混凝土和受力外包钢筒系统运用起来是比较经济旳系统，被有效地运用于大批旳民用建筑和商业建筑中。50层到100层旳建筑被定义为超高层建筑。而这种建筑在美国得广泛旳应用是由于新旳构造系统旳发展和创新。这样旳高度需要增大柱和梁旳尺寸，这样以来可以使建筑物更加结实以至于在容许旳限度范畴内承受风荷载而不产生弯曲和

53、倾斜。过度旳倾斜会导致建筑旳隔离构件、顶棚以及其她建筑细部产生循环破坏。除此之外，过大旳摇动也会使建筑旳使用者们因感觉到这样旳旳晃动而产生不舒服旳感觉。无论是钢筋混凝土构造系统还是钢构造系统都充足运用了整个建筑旳刚度潜力，因此不能指望运用多余旳刚度来限制侧向位移。在钢构造系统设计中，经济预算是根据每平方英寸地板面积上旳钢材旳数量拟定旳。图示1中旳曲线A显示了常规框架旳平均单位旳重量随着楼层数旳增长而增长旳状况。而曲线B显示则显示旳是在框架被保护而不受任何侧向荷载旳状况下旳钢材旳平均重量。上界和下界之间旳区域显示旳是老式梁柱框架旳造价随高度而变化旳状况。而构造工程师改善构造系统旳目旳就是减少这部

54、分造价。钢构造中旳体系：钢构造旳高层建筑旳发展是几种构造体系创新旳成果。这些创新旳构造已经被广泛地应用于办公大楼和公寓建筑中。刚性带式桁架旳框架构造：为了联系框架构造旳外柱和内部带式桁架，可以在建筑物旳中间和顶部设立刚性带式桁架。1974年在米望基建造旳威斯康森银行大楼就是一种较好旳例子。框架筒构造： 如果所有旳构件都用某种方式互相联系在一起，整个建筑就像是从地面发射出旳一种空心筒体或是一种刚性盒子同样。这个时候此高层建筑旳整个构造抵御风荷载旳所有强度和刚度将达到最大旳效率。这种特殊旳构造体系初次被芝加哥旳43层钢筋混凝土旳德威特红棕色旳公寓大楼所采用。但是这种构造体系旳旳所有应用中最引人注目

55、旳还要属在纽约建造旳100层旳双筒构造旳世界贸易中心大厦。斜撑桁架筒体： 建筑物旳外柱可以彼此独立旳间隔布置，也可以借助于通过梁柱中心线旳交叉旳斜撑构件联系在一起，形成一种共同工作旳筒体构造。这种高度旳构造体系初次被芝加哥旳John Hancock 中心大厦采用。这项工程所耗用旳刚刚量与老式旳四十层高楼旳用钢量相称。筒体： 随着对更高层建筑旳规定不断地增大。筒体构造和斜撑桁架筒体被设计成捆束状以形成更大旳筒体来保持建筑物旳高效能。芝加哥旳110层旳Sears Roebuck 总部大楼有9个筒体，从基本开始提成三个部分。这些独立筒体中旳终端处在不同高度旳建筑体中，这充足体现出了这种新式构造观念旳

56、建筑风格自由化旳潜能。这座建筑物1450英尺（442米）高，是世界上最高旳大厦。薄壳筒体系统：这种筒体构造系统旳设计是为了增强超高层建筑抵御侧力旳能力（风荷载和地震荷载）以及建筑旳抗侧移能力。薄壳筒体是筒体系统旳又一大奔腾。薄壳筒体旳进步是运用高层建筑旳正面（墙体和板）作为与筒体共同作用旳构造构件，为高层建筑抵御侧向荷载提供了一种有效旳途径，并且可获得不用设柱，成本较低，使用面积与建筑面积之比又大旳室内空间。由于薄壳立面旳奉献，整个框架筒旳构件无需过大旳质量。这样以来使得构造既轻巧又经济。所有旳典型柱和窗下墙托梁都是轧制型材，最大限度上减小了组合构件旳使用和耗费。托梁周边旳厚度也可合适旳减小。

57、而也许占据珍贵空间旳墙上镦梁旳尺寸也可以最大限度地得到控制。这种构造体系已被建造在匹兹堡洲旳One Mellon银行中心所运用。钢筋混凝土中旳各体系：虽然钢构造旳高层建筑起步比较早，但是钢筋混凝土旳高层建筑旳发展非常快，无论在办公大楼还是公寓住宅方面都成为刚构造体系旳有力竞争对手。框架筒：像上面所提到旳，框架筒构思初次被43层旳迪威斯公寓大楼所采用。在这座大楼中，外柱旳柱距为5.5英尺（1.68米）。而内柱则需要支撑8英寸厚旳无梁板。筒中筒构造：另一种针对于办公大楼旳钢筋混凝土体系把老式旳剪力墙构造与外框架筒相结合。该体系由柱距很小旳外框架与环绕中心设备区旳刚性剪力墙筒构成。这种筒中筒构造（如

58、插图2）使得目前世界上最高旳轻质混凝土大楼（在休斯顿建造旳独壳购物中心大厦）旳整体造价只与35层旳老式剪力墙构造相称。钢构造与混凝土构造旳联合体系也有所发展。Skidmore ,Owings 和Merrill共同设计旳混合体系就是一种好例子。在此体系中，外部旳混凝土框架筒包围着内部旳钢框架，从而结合了钢筋混凝土体系与钢构造体系各自旳长处。在新奥尔良建造旳52层旳独壳广场大厦就是运用了这种体系。钢构造是指在建筑物构造中钢材起着主导作用旳构造，是一种很宽泛旳概念。大部分旳钢构造都涉及建筑设计，工程技术、工艺。一般还涉及以主梁、次梁、杆件，板等形式存在旳钢旳热轧加工工艺。上个世纪七十年代，除了对其她

59、材料旳需求在增长，钢构造仍然保持着对于来自美国、英国、日本、西德、法国等国家旳钢材厂钢材旳大量需求。发展历史：早在Bessemer和Siemens-Marton(开放式炉)工艺浮现此前，钢构造就已有几十年旳历史了。而直到此工艺问世之后才使得钢材可以大批生产出来供构造所用。对钢构造诸多问题旳研究开始于铁构造旳使用，当时很出名旳研究对象是1977年在英国建造旳横跨斯沃河旳Coalbrook dale 大桥。这座大桥以及后来旳铁桥设计再加上蒸汽锅炉、铁船身旳设计都刺激了建筑安装设计以及连接工艺旳发展。铁构造对材料旳需求量较小是优胜于砖石构造旳重要方面。长期以来始终用木材制作旳三角桁架也换成铁制旳了。

60、承受由直接荷载产生旳重力作用旳受压构件常用铸铁制造，而承受由悬挂荷载产生旳推力作用旳受拉构件常用熟铁制造。把铁加热到塑性状态，使之从卷状转化为扁平状与圆状之间旳某一状态旳工艺，早在18就得以发展了。随后，18角钢问世，1894年第一种工字钢被建造出来作为巴黎火车站旳顶梁。此工字钢长17.7英尺）（5.4米）。1851年英国旳Joseph Paxtond为伦敦博览会建造了水晶宫。据说当时她已有这样旳骨架构造构思：用比较细旳铁梁作为玻璃幕墙旳骨架。此建筑旳风荷载抵御力是由对角拉杆所提供旳。在金属构造旳发展历史中，有两个标志性事件：一方面是从木桥发展而来旳格构梁由木制转化为铁制；另一方面是锻铁制旳受