Culture perspectives文化视角说明

1、Culture perspectivesOur cultures determine the way we perceive ourselves and the way we perceive the world around us. Culture determines our view of how the world works, our beliefs about god, human nature, good and evil, humanitys relationship to nature, and many other important issues. Each cultur

2、e believes that its views about the world are the correct views, and that other cultures holding conflicting views are wrong. When cultures hold different world views, it can be difficult for members of those cultures to communicate with one another. However, as members of the world, we do not have

3、to agree with the views the others have, but we do have to understand and respect the world view that leads members of that culture to have the beliefs and to behave as they do.Il nest pas proper? My French sister-in-laws question floated in the air. I pretended not to hear, waiting for my wife to a

4、nswer. She was asking about our two-and-a-half-year-old son, who had just scampered by her, chasing a ball on the beach in Normandy. I wasnt exactly sure what she was asking. He isnt clean? What could she mean by that? When my wife answered, it became clear. It was about the diaper he was wearing, a

5、nd the fact that he was not yet toilet trained. Wasnt he getting a little old for diapers? This conversation, and the implication that our American toilet training practices were somehow inadequate, bothered me. I knew there were cultural differences in play, but the only explanation I could come up

6、 with in the moment was a simplistic notion about informality, or different traditions. Truthfully, I was struck more by how bothered I was. My emotions were triggered, and I couldnt figure out why.Later, I came across a comparison of the differences between French and American child-rearing practic

7、es. The French perceive that humankind-all people-contains both good and evil, and that children therefore need the guiding hand of rational adults in order to prepare them to participate properly in society, to bring out the positive in them and to control their innate negative tendencies. Children

8、 must follow the rules, so to speak. Americans, in contrast, tend to view humankind as basically good, and are consequently more tolerant of children finding their own way, learning from mistakes, trusting them to do what is right.What helped me most in this comparison was the realization that the f

9、undamental differences in views between my sister-in-law and me could be explained in terms of cultural perspectives, that these were submerged deep within, and that it was not really a matter of right and wrong between the two of us. I question whether I could have come to this understanding by rel

10、ying on my own experience. I needed others views.Perspectives can be presented as a combination of perceptions, values, beliefs, and attitudes. They are the explicit and implicit meanings shared by members of the culture, manifested in products and practices. These meanings reflect members perceptio

11、ns of the world, the beliefs and values that they hold, and the norms, expectations, and attitudes that they bring to practices. To name the perspectives that underlie practices is to answer the question, “why do the people of this culture do things in the way they do?”Perspectives can be tangible.

12、Perceptions, beliefs, values, and attitudes can be explicitly stated in oral or written form. These explicit perspectives are expressed through sayings, proverbs, creeds, proclamations, myths, mottos, principles, guidelines, mission statements, scholarly studies, cultural studies, or other explicit

13、forms of expression. These overt perspectives, the shared public outlooks, guide our practices.As an example, consider the perspective of “the American dream”-a culture perspective that reflects a belief that anyone can achieve fame and fortune in the united states through hard work, self-reliance,

14、and sacrifice. This belief is based upon values of equality, individualism, achievement, competition, and materialism. These values, in turn, derive from a cultural perception that people possess free will and can control their destinies and the environment, and that the future is more important tha

15、n the past. Attitude of competitiveness, ambition, determination, self-centeredness, and resilience follow. Accordingly, U.S. culture has many practices that reflect the pursuit of the American dream, including establishing certain relationships, developing a career, and acquiring wealth, status, or

16、 respect. Products accumulate with such practices: possessions, goods, capital, status, and recognition.Many explicit perspectives are found in the history of a culture and in social and cultural studies and commentaries. The histories of political, economic, religious, educational and other formal

17、institutions both reflect and propagate cultural perspectives. For example, the belief that “every man is presumed innocent until proven guilty” pervades the judicial system in the united states, and has its origins in the American revolution as a conscious response to the political institutions in

18、Europe. Likewise, U.S. history books are filled with stories of “self-made men,” “rugged individualists” who “pulled themselves up by their own bootstraps”, “left their pasts behind”, and went from “rags to riches” to attain the American dream,” proving”, in effect, that “god helps those who help th

19、emselves.” (Depending on the American you talk to, this perspective may be seen as myth or reality.)Perspectives are thus explicit, but at the same time they can be tacit or outside awareness. Members of a culture carry out practices, but when asked to explain them, they often cannot specify why the

20、y engage in these practices; they frequently reply, “Thats just the way it is” or “were always doing it this way”. This is not to say that people are unable to specify perspectives, but rather that people tend not to be aware of them. They take them for granted. The maxim “if you want to know about

21、water, dont ask a fish”, often used in intercultural circles, makes this point.Even though most cultural perspectives are tacit, they can be brought to the surface and made explicit, as anthropologists, among others, have demonstrated. It can demand a significant effort to uncover the tacit perspect

22、ives that govern practices. While this discovery is possible, it is questionable whether all tacit perspectives can in fact be surfaced. Some (or many, who knows) remain imprinted in the depths of our reptilian and mammalian brains, beyond the reach of language. 尽管大多数文化视角的默契，他们可以带出水面，并作出了明确的，作为人类学家，

23、等等，都展现。它可以要求一个显著努力揭示支配行为的默许观点。虽然这个发现是可能的，这是值得怀疑是否所有隐性的观点其实都可以浮出水面。有些（或很多，谁知道）留在我们的爬行动物和哺乳动物的大脑深处的烙印，超越语言的范围。在最明确的等级，观点表示最经常被视为是与态度相关的情感，揭示了在文字或做法事。在大多数情况下，这些感觉是正或负。在大多数情况下，这些感觉是正或负。（“这个人是不是到时我的预期。我觉得这个OK。”或者“我不觉得ok了这一点。”）的态度围值，可作出了明确。 （我不觉得ok了这一点，因为这是不正确的人做这个，一个正常的人不会这么做。“）值是紧密联系在一起的信念，我们坚持是真的还是假的，也

24、可作出明确的，有反映。 （“我相信，时间是宝贵的。”）我们应该立足于观念，而这些几乎都是心照不宣的，虽然他们也可以被带到意识，在考虑或研究。 （“我感知时间的物质，如材料，它可以测量，量化，像任何其他商品的处理”。）At the most explicit level, perspectives are expressed most often as feelings that are associated with attitudes, revealed in the words or deeds of practices. For the most part, these feelings

25、 are either positive or negative. For the most part, these feelings are either positive or negative. (“this person is not arriving when I expected. I feel ok about this.” Or “I dont feel ok about this.”) the attitudes enclose values, which can be made explicit. (I dont feel ok about this, because it

26、s not right for someone to do this; a normal person wouldnt do this.”) values are closely linked to beliefs, what we hold to be true or false, which also can be made explicit, with reflection. (“I believe that time is precious.”) we should base on perceptions, and these are almost always tacit, alth

27、ough they too can be brought to awareness, upon reflection or research. (“I perceive time as a substance, as material; it can be measured, quantified, and handled like any other commodity.”) Issues related to time, especially punctuality, illustrate the explicit and tacit nature of perspectives. If

28、Im waiting for someone to arrive at a prearranged time, I begin to feel vaguely uncomfortable as the expected hour passes. The more time elapses, the more irritated I become. It takes a conscious effort to remind myself that my perception of time and the beliefs and values associated with it are in

29、full force. I tell myself that I need to drop my belief that the person I await possesses deep, irreversible character flaws. To move through the emotions and attitudes to discover values, beliefs, and perceptions takes work, especially if the emotions are strong. Strong emotional reactions generall

30、y signal that an important culture perspective has been touched, called into question, or threatened in some way. 与时间相关，特别是守时的问题，阐明观点的显性和隐性的性质。如果我等待有人在事先约好的时间到达时，我开始感到隐约不舒服的预期小时过去了。更多的时间过去时，更激怒我成了。它需要有意识地提醒自己，我的感知时间，信念和与之相关的值是完全有效。我告诉自己，我必须放弃我的信念，我等待的人拥有深厚的，不可逆转的性格缺陷。移动通过情感和态度去发现价值，信仰和观念需要的工作，尤其是在情绪

31、都很强。强烈的情绪反应，通常预示着一个重要的文化观点已经被触及，质疑，或威胁以某种方式。One way in which perceptions are commonly described in cultural studies is as “worldview”. Literally, worldview is what it suggests: perceptions of all that surrounds one. The assumption underlying the notion of worldview is that of a unified, shared outlo

32、ok on the world. Worldview is used most often to describe the fundamental on the world. Worldview is used most often to describe the fundamental perceptions shared by members of a culture. Perceptions, in the other words, are the organizing element in culture. Beliefs, values, attitudes, practices,

33、and products follow. Perhaps the most obvious illustration of worldviews is religious institutions. Religions propose perspectives on humankind, deity, nature, and the universe. These views engender beliefs, values, and attitudes, which are manifested in the sets of specific practices developed by m

34、embers of the religion. If they adhere to these practices, members will lead a proper way of life.在这种观念的文化研究通常描述的方法之一是为“世界观”。从字面上看，世界观是它表明：一切围绕着一个看法。世界观的概念背后的假设是统一的，共同的世界观的。世界观是最常用来形容根本上世界。世界观是最常用来形容一个文化的成员共享的基本看法。感知，在换句话说，是在培养的组织元素。信念，价值观，态度，行为和产品随之而来。也许是世界观的最明显的例证是宗教机构。宗教上提出人类，神，自然和宇宙的看法。这些观点产生的信仰

35、，价值观和态度，这表现在由宗教的成员制定了具体的做法集。如果他们坚持这些做法，成员将引领生活的正确方法。When discussing perspectives, we need to recognize that there are two kinds: emic and etic. Emit perspectives are those articulated by members of the culture to explain them and their culture, while etic perspectives are those of outsiders to the c

36、ulture, who use their own criteria to explain the others s culture. 在讨论的观点，我们需要认识到，有两种：主位和客位。散发出的观点是那些阐述了文化的成员解释他们和他们的文化，同时客位的观点是那些外人文化，谁用自己的标准来解释他人的文化。Etic perspectives include those of visitors to the culture, the criteria they use to describe and explain what they encounter, as well as categories

37、 for cross-cultural description and analysis established by anthropologists and other culture researchers to describe many cultures. Etic perspectives, therefore, provide frameworks to describe, analyze, and explain a culture from the outside. Each etic category carries assumptions about the nature

38、of culture, and it is important to bring out these assumptions.客位观点包括那些游人的文化，他们用来描述和解释他们遇到了人类学家和其他文化研究者制定的标准，以及跨文化的介绍和分析类别来形容许多文化。客位的观点，因此，提供的框架来描述，分析，并从外部解释的文化。每个客位类别携带关于培养的性质的假设，并带出这些假设是很重要的。Emic explanations are perspectives that members of the culture use to describe or explain their own way of

39、life. These perspectives do not necessarily correspond to etic categories, nor does the terminology that the members use for their explanations. When asked, members may easily express the reasons for cultural products and practices. Or, given that many fundamental cultural perspectives are outside a

40、wareness, like the submerged bulk of the cultural iceberg, members may have difficulty finding word to fully explain them, just as I had no explanation on American toilet training practices.主位的解释是文化的成员用来描述或解释自己的生活方式观点。这些角度并不一定对应于客位类别，也没有该部件用于它们的解释的术语。当记者问，成员可以轻松地表达的原因，文化产品和做法。或者，由于许多基本的文化视角之外的意识，就像淹

41、没大部分的文化一角，成员可能很难找到字，充分说明他们的，正如我对美国的如厕训练的做法没有任何解释。对外汉语教师说明了从两个不同的文化，他的祖国喀麦隆和我们看到了同样的感人行为，内幕/外视角学生在他的法语课。A foreign language teacher illustrates the insider/outside perspectives on the same touching behaviors seen from two different cultures, his native Cameroon and the u.s. students in his French clas

42、s.在我的法语课，我们正在审查的问候。通常的卓悦，萨吕，等以后我介绍了握手。我问他们多久握手与他们的朋友。答案是几乎永远不会。然后，我向他们解释，怎么啦喀麦隆将在同一天握手数次。每当他们见面，他们可以握手。学生们说，他们真的不舒服被感动。我们探讨了可能的原因喀麦隆人握手了这么多，主要一个是有限的个人空间的人让自己在喀麦隆。In my French class, we were reviewing greetings. After the usual bonjour, salut, etc. I introduced handshaking. I asked them how often the

43、y shake hands with their friends. The answer was rarely to never. I then explained to them how friends in Cameroon would shake hands several times during the same day. Whenever they would meet, they could shake hands. Students said they really be uncomfortable to be touched. We explored the possible

44、 reasons why Cameroonians shake hand so much, with the main one being the limited personal space people allow themselves in Cameroon.To make things worse, I told them that friend, brothers, sisters walk hand in hand-literally-in Cameroon, without that having any connotation. When they heard this, mo

45、st students were shocked, expect for a Korean-american student. He said that on a trip to south korea he noticed people holding hands everywhere, and he thought everybody was gay. He said he refused to hold hands with his cousins, and they thought he was just a weird American kid. Students admitted

46、theyd try holding hands only if they had to.更糟糕的是，我告诉他们的朋友，兄弟，姐妹携手同行，从字面上 - 在喀麦隆，没有说有任何内涵。当他们听到这句话，大多数学生感到震惊，希望为韩国裔学生。他说，上了一趟韩国南部他注意到人们牵着手无处不在，他认为每个人是同性恋。他说，他拒绝执子之手与他的表兄弟，他们以为他只是一个奇怪的美国孩子。学生承认他们会抱着试试看的手，只有当他们不得不去面对。As a Cameroonian living in this country, I have noticed that people in the united sta

47、tes dont touch each other a lot. The rare occasions that I have observed people touching others are when expressing approval or satisfaction for a job well done; a tap on the shoulder (usually from a superior/coach, etc.); when sealing a deal (handshake); for a farewell (hug); friends giving each ot

48、her a hug to comfort one another. I have also observed that holding hands occurs in the following situations: parents hold younger kids when crossing roads; lovers hold hands as a sign of intimate affection. Although not explicit, when two individuals of the same gender are seen holding hands, peopl

49、e in this country always consider them love partners.作为一名喀麦隆生活在这个国家，我注意到，人们在美国不互相接触了很多。在罕见的情况下，我看到别人摸别人都表示认可或满意为工作做得好的时候;在肩部（通常从上级/教练等）的抽头;密封处理（握手）时;为告别（拥抱）;朋友给对方一个拥抱来安慰彼此。我也观察到，手牵着手出现在以下几种情况：父母过马路时，应举行年轻的孩子;恋人手牵着手的亲密感情的象征。虽然不明确，当同一性别的两个人都见过牵着手，人在这个国家总是认为他们的爱情的合作伙伴。In view of the unfortunate and bia

50、sed negative perception of gay and lesbian life in many American cultural circles, students do not want people to think they are gay or lesbian. The issue of use of personal space also comes into play here. In general, people in united states need a large personal space. Touching infringes that free

51、dom.鉴于同性恋生活的许多美国文化界的不幸和偏负面的看法，学生不希望人们认为他们是同性恋。使用个人空间的问题也出现在这里发挥作用。一般来说，人们在美国需要一个大的私人空间。触摸侵犯的自由。My goal was to show students the different interpretations the same personal behavior can have according to cultures. One behavior can be marked in one culture and unmarked in another. I wanted to stress t

52、he fact that people in Cameroon are closer, and they tolerate being touched by and touching acquaintances. I think my students became aware of the difference. I hope that if they ever find themselves in Cameroon or surrounded by a bunch of Cameroonians, theyll remember that shaking hands is ok and e

53、ven expected, and that holding hands does not mean people are intimate. Lovers in Cameroon seldom hold hands! I dont recall seeing my own parents holding hands, let alone showing any other sign of affection to each other!我的目标是向学生展示了不同的解释相同的个人行为，可根据文化都有。一个行为可以被标记在一个文化和无人盯防的另一回事。我想强调的是，人们在喀麦隆更接近，而且他们容

54、忍被感动和感人的熟人。我觉得我的同学才知道的差异。我希望，如果他们发现自己在喀麦隆或一堆喀麦隆的包围，他们会记住，握手是确定的，甚至预期，并牵手并不意味着人是贴心。在喀麦隆爱好者很少牵手！我不记得我看到自己的父母牵着手，更别说展示亲情的任何其他标志，以对方！So hopefully my students will not say “gross!” or “thats gay!” when they see such behavior in a Cameroonian setting, or even in a Korean one, as we learned from the Korean

55、-American boy.Adapted from teaching culture: perspectives in practice by P.R.Moran所以希望我的学生不会说“毛！”或者“这是同性恋！”当他们看到这样的行为在喀麦隆的设置，甚至在韩国之一，我们从韩国，美国男孩教训。通过PRMoran在实践中的观点：从教学文化适应Cultural values and interpersonal relationships文化价值观和人际关系Cultures have values that are largely shared by their members. The values

56、 of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or respect. Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. Fly

57、ing the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. In certain cultures they reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different value

58、s. In order for a person to succeed in life, an education is not the only thing that they will need. An education is a stepping stone to success, but one needs to develop their abilities to mingle with other people. In the age of globalization, its more important to improve their competence of inter

59、personal communication, which depends on realization of diversities in cultural values.文化具有通过其成员主要是共同的价值观。一个社会的价值观往往可以通过观察人们获得的荣誉和尊敬识别。值与文化的规范，但他们更全球性和规范比抽象。规范是在特定情况下的行为规则，而值确定哪些应该定性为善或恶。飘扬的国旗上度假是一种常态，但它反映了爱国主义的价值。身穿深色衣服和庄严的出现是在葬礼上规范的行为。在某些文化中，他们反映了尊重和支持的朋友和家人的价值观。不同的文化反映了不同的价值观。为了让一个人在生活中取得成功，教育是不是

60、唯一的东西，他们将需要。教育是一个敲门砖，而是一个需要发展自己的能力打成一片与其他人。在全球化的时代，它更重要的是要提高人际沟通，这取决于实现文化多样性价值的竞争力。Cultural assumptions and values文化假设和值Values are relatively concrete, discrete, and specific; for instance, typical American values are the sanctity of private property, the desirability of physical comfort, and the ne