英语语言学概论morphology

1、优选文档优选文档PAGEPAGE15优选文档PAGE徐州工程学院授课设计年至年第学期第周星期课题名称（含教材章节）：Morphology授课目标和要求：本章介绍了形态学的研究范围、语素的定义、几组重要看法之间的关系或区别（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）、直接成分解析、以及构词法。经过本章的学习，认识并掌握形态学的研究范围、语素的定义、几组重要看法之间的关系或差异（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语

2、素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）、直接成分解析、以及构词法。授课重点：语素的定义以及几组重要看法之间的关系或差异（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）。授课难点：直接成分解析方法以及构词法。授课内容（重点）DefinitionofMorphologyMorphemeClassificationofMorphemeWordformationICanalysis1徐州工程学院授课设计纸WhatiswordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniv

3、ersalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwrittenThreesensesof“word”:Aphysicallydefinableunit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.Phonologicalandorthographic(书写上)Problem:WhenliaisonandcontractedformoccurThecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms:boy,boys

4、;check,checks,checked,checkingLexeme(词位):theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontextsWritewrite,writes,wrote,writing,writtenFatfat,fatter,fattestAgrammaticalunit:sentenceclausewordgroup/phrasewordmorphemeProblem:freemorphemesorwords

5、:black,bird,air,craft,town,hallIdentificationofwords:Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairmanmanchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience./Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.Relativeuninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.disappoi

6、ntmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.Aminimumfreeform:firstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfiledSentencethemaximumfreeformWordtheminimumfreeform,thesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.e.g.IsJanecomingthisevening?Possibly.Hi,Darling,ShitDispute:Notallword-likeunitsw

7、ouldsatisfythiscriteriona,the2WhatismissinginasentencesuchasDogisbarking?A.ClassificationofwordsVariableandinvariablewordsVariablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariable

8、words:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2)GrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsGrammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,

9、verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).3)Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords:Grammaticallexicalwords/closed-classopen-classwordsClosed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixe

10、dorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,i

11、nspiteof,bemeansofAuxiliaryverbsWordclass:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Eightorninewordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article.Somenewcategories:Particles(助词):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubor

12、dinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,lookback)b.Auxiliaries(助动词):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclass.3Thedifferencebetweenaverbandanauxiliary,seeexamplesonPage82.c.Pro-form(代词形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup名(词词组)orasingleno

13、un.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:HehopeshellwinandIsohopetoo.Pro-locative(代地方词):Jameshidingthere,behindthedoor.d.Determiners(限制词):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n

14、),some,allQuirk,etal.(1985:253):threesubclassesofdeterminers:Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifthCentraldeterminers:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,theirPostdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基数词),ordinalnumer

15、als(序数),generalordinals(一般序次词):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.theiralltrouble,a

16、lltheirtroubleWithineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.thethisboy,allbothgirls.Butordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals,thefirsttwodays,anotherthreeweeksTheformationofwordMorpheme(语素)andmorphology(形态学)Chairman:chair,manTownhall:town,hallBoys:boy,-sCheckin

17、g:check,-ingDisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentThecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed.Morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthe4meani

18、ng,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.TypesofmorphemesFreemorphemeandboundmorphemeIntermsoftheircapacityofoccurringaloneFreemorphemes:thosewhichmayoccuralone,i.e.thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselvesdog,nation,closeAllmono

19、morphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Compounds:polymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflowerBoundmorphemes:thosewhichcannotoccuralonedistempered:dis-,temper,-edRoot,affixandstem(词根、词缀和词干)Poly-morphemicwordsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisthebasef

20、ormofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.InternationalismAllwordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,prefi

21、x(前缀),suffix(后缀),andinfix(中缀).Prefix:para-,mini-un-Suffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geeseArootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound.Freerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesandarethebaseformsofwords,e.g.black(black,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith)Freerootmorphemesarepotentiallyun

22、limitedinnumberinalanguage.TherearerelativelyfewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,e.g.ceive(receive,perceive,conceive);-mit(remit,permit,commit,submit)AfewEnglishrootsmayhavebothfreeandboundvariantsSleep.andchildsleptandchildrenstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffix(屈折词缀)canbe

23、added.Friend-infriends,and5friendshipinfriendshipsInflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)Inflectionalaffixesaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,toys,walks,Johns.Theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrastderivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,e.gcite,.citat

24、ion;generate,generationInflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchassmall-smallness,brother-brotherhood.Inflectionalaffixesareconditionedbynonsemanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseo

25、rsentence,e.g.Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet.DerivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctionsClever,.clevernessInflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal(drums,walks,Mary)s.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes(depart,online)orsuffixes(teacher,workable)Inflectionan

26、dwordformation(屈折变化和词的形成)Twofieldsmorphology(形态学)concerns:thestudyofinflections;thestudyofwordformationInflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness(有定性),aspect(体)andcase（格),whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstow

27、hichtheyareattached.Wordformation:theprocessofwordvariationssignallinglexicalrelationshipsCompound:thosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,thewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleformNouncompounds,verbcompounds,adjectivecompounds,prepositioncompoundsTheendocentriccompound(向心复合词)andthee

28、xocentriccompound(离心复合词)Theheadofanominaloradjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatisitisderivedfromaverb.Thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.SeeexamplesonPage90.6spacesbetweenthetwoparts:washingmachine,trafficcap.TheexocentricnominalcompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,exocentricadjectiv

29、escomefromV+NandV+A.SeeexamplesonPage90.Differencebetweenendocentricandexocentriccompounds:Endocentric:Bloomfoledstermforaconstructioninwhichatleastoneelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole.E.g.thatofrawmeat,whoseroleinlargerconstructionsislikethatofitssecondelementmeat;alsothatofmeatandfish,who

30、serolecouldbefilledbyeithermeatorfish.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.blackbirdisendocentricsinceitisahyponymofbird,whileblackcap(anotherspeciesofsongbird)isnot,sinceitisnotahyponymofExocentric:Bloomfieldstermforaconstructioninwhichnoelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole:e.g.thoseinofWashingtonorwroteb

31、ooks.Alsousedofcompounds:andhardbackareexocentriccompoundssincetheyarenothyponymsofeitherpickorpocket,oreitherhardorback.Waysofwritingacompound:Compoundscanbewrittenasasingleword:wardrobe,bodyguard,seashore.Theycanalsobejoinedwithahyphen:wedding-ring,traffic-light,simple-minded.Somecanbewrittenwitho

32、rdinaryisland,counterrevolutionary.B.Derivation:Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.SeeexamplesonPage91.Derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginaleitherchangedorunchanged.Formsderivedfromderivationarerelativelylargeandpotentiallyopen.SeeexamplesonPage92.InEnglishthereisusuallyoneproduc

33、tiveinflectionalaffixperword,butmultiplederivationalaffixesareallowed.SeeexamplesonPage92.Somewordscancarrybothprefixesandsuffixes.SeeexamplesonPage93.Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology(音系学和形态学的对峙)Morphemeandphoneme:Aphonemeisthesmallestunitofsoundandamorphemeisthesmallestunitingrammar.Morphoph

34、onology(形态音系学)ormorphophonemics(形态音位学)Asinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorphems,buttheyarenotidentical.SeeexamplesonPage93.Morphemicstructureandphonologicalstructure:Morphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasingle7phoneme.Allomorph(语素变体):somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontext

35、s.Butamorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.E.g.themorphemethatexpresspluralityinEnglish.SeeexamplesonPage94.Likephoneme,morphemeisanabstractunit.Morphemesareputbetweenbraceslike.Takethepluralmorphemeforexample.Page94.Somemorphemicshapesrepresentdifferentmorphemesandthushavedifferentmeanings

36、.ExamplesonPage95.MorphophonologyorMorphophonemics:abranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,and,correspondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Itstudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenphonologyandmorphol

37、ogy.Phonologicallyconditioned(音位的限制):Theformorshapeofmorphemesmaybeconditionedbyphonologicalfactors.Forexample,thenegativemorphemeisrealizedas-”or“-”im“.inExamplesonPage95.Assimilationoccurs.Oppositetoassimilation,thereisDissimilation(异化作用),whichreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesegmentuponthearticu

38、lationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.ExamplesonPage95.B.Morphologicallyconditioned(形态的限制):Morphemescanalsobeconditionedbymorphologicalfactors.Threerequirementsshouldbemet:Alltheallomorphsshouldhavecommonmeaning,e.g.thepluralmorphemeAlltheallomorphsshouldbeincomplementarydistrib

39、ution.Allomorphsthatsharethecommonmeaningshouldoccurinparallelformation.ExamplesonPage96.LexicalChange1.Lexicalchangeproper(特有的词汇变化)1)Invention(新创词语):Kodak,Coke,nylon,granola82)Blending(混成法):acomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthes

40、econdword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowordsExampleson98Fusion(溶合法):BlendingonahighercognitivelevelExamplesonPage983)Abbreviation(缩写词):Clipping(截断法)Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpart,andcuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly.Exampleson99UsedforEnglishnames:BobRo

41、bert,LizElizabethPopularinEducationaldomain:chemchemistry,examexamination,gymgymnasium,lablaboratory,mathmathematics4)Acronym(缩写词):madeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganizationEEC,CIA,PLO,UNESCO,WTO,WBshorteningextremelylongwordgroupsinscience,technologyandotherspecialfieldsAids,EEG,Radar5)Back

42、-formation(逆构词法):anabnormaltypeofwordformationbywhichashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguageExamplesPage1006)Analogicalcreation(类推构词):Itcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs.7)Borrowing(借词):Borrowfromot

43、herlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,ArabicandotherlanguagesExampleson102Typesofborrowing:i.Loanwords(借词):BothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptationLoanblend(混杂借词):Partoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowedLoanshift(转移借词):Themeaningisborrowed,buttheformis9nati

44、ve.iv.Loantranslation(翻译借词):Eachmorphemeorwordistranslatedintheequivalentmorphemeorwordinanotherlanguage,alsocalledCalque(仿造词).Itmaybeaword,aphrase,orevenashortsentence.2.Phonologicalchange音(位变化):Itisrelatedtolanguagevariationinthephonologicalsystemoflanguage.Itreferstochangesinsoundleadingtochanges

45、inform.Somefactorsthatcontributetotheformationofnewpronunciation:1)Loss(零散):thedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystemExamplesPage103Itmayalsooccurinutterancesattheexpenseofsomeunstressedvowels.ExamplesPage104Addition(增加):Soundsmayalsobeaddedtotheoriginalsoundsequence.Metathesis(换位):Itisaprocessinvolvinganalternationinthesequenceofsounds.Ithadbeenoriginallyaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.4)Assimilation(同化):Itrefers