经济学思维方式：CompetitionandGovernmentPolicy课件

1、经济学思维方式：CompetitionandGovernmentPolicy课件经济学思维方式：CompetitionandGovernmeChapter OutlineCompetition as a Process The Pressures of CompetitionControlling CompetitionRestrictions on CompetitionCompetition on Other FrontsCompetition for the Key ResourceCompetition and Property Rights The Ambivalence（矛盾） o

2、f Government Policies2Chapter OutlineCompetition as Chapter OutlineSelling Below CostWhat is the Appropriate Cost?“Predators” and CompetitionRegulating Prices“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and ApplicationsVertical Restraints: Competitive or AnticompetitiveThe Range of OpinionToward Evaluation3Cha

3、pter OutlineSelling Below CIntroductionQuestionsWill economic competition disappear unless the government has an active program to preserve it?When the government prohibits mergers, is it preventing competitors from eliminating rivals?When sellers face so little competition that they can charge pric

4、es far above cost, can government protect consumers from exploitation by regulating prices?How is competition measured in an industry?4IntroductionQuestions6Introduction学习完本章之后，你对这些问题应该有更好的认识5Introduction学习完本章之后，你对这些问题应该有更Competition as a Process在日常语言中，“竞争”更多地指的是人们参与的活动。而在主流经济学中，“竞争”的概念却意指事物的状态（stat

5、e of affairs）。6Competition as a Process在日常语言中Competition as a ProcessA （perfectly）competitive market（完全竞争市场） is said to exist whenThere are a large number of buyers and sellers, and nobody possesses market powerMarket participants possess full and complete information of alternativesSellers produce

6、a homogeneous（同质的） productThere is costless mobility of resourcesThe economic actors are price takers7Competition as a ProcessA （perCompetition as a Process完全竞争会导致一个假想的资源最优配置和零利润。然而，这种模型的运用对于理解经济问题来说有着严重的局限性！8Competition as a Process完全竞争会导Competition as a Process完全竞争模型的局限性模糊了经济系统背后的制度架构；忽略了市场上交换行为的动

7、态性和多面性；忽略了企业家调整过程，这是强进的市场经济的核心，是市场经济活力的源泉。9Competition as a Process完全竞争模型Competition as a Process完全竞争模型关注的是事物的状态，是所有调整活动发生后的状态；其中，所有人的计划处于先天的协调状态；而没有解释经济主体是如何通过交换和生产活动实现收益的（如果追踪至其逻辑极限，则又会穷尽所有潜在收益）。斯密谈论的是市场上的讨价还价，而完全竞争模型关心的却是消除进一步讨价还价可能性的条件。这是一个严重的智识错误！10Competition as a Process完全竞争模型The Pressures of

8、 CompetitionPrice Marginal CostSellers facing downward sloping demand curvesInvites CompetitionExamplePiece of pie costs 50 cents to produceSeller sells the pie for $1.5011The Pressures of CompetitionPrThe Pressures of CompetitionPQDTemptation!.50Marginal cost$1.50Price12The Pressures of Competition

9、PQThe Pressures of CompetitionPQDemand curveas sellerperceives itD13The Pressures of CompetitionPQThe Pressures of Competition现实中，销售者如何获取对其产品的需求信息？经常调查；通过做广告和提供可靠的服务来努力刺激和维持这种需求；如果有几个销售者销售同一产品，每个销售者的需求曲线将取决于这些相互竞争的销售者采取的政策。 前面章节明确定义的需求曲线变得模糊了！14The Pressures of Competition现实Controlling CompetitionWh

10、y dont sellers agree not to compete? Answer: High transaction costs！Collusion is illegalDifficult to devise agreementCollusion may attract other firms15Controlling CompetitionWhy donControlling CompetitionWhat about Cartels?Cartels are fragileTo be successful for its membersMust prevent competition

11、among membersStop new competitors from entering the market16Controlling CompetitionWhat abControlling CompetitionIn reality, special-interest groups seek to legally restrict entry各种借口五花八门通过这些方式，他们是否真能获得“有保证的利润”（guaranteed profit）呢？17Controlling CompetitionIn realCompetition on Other FrontsThe exampl

12、e of mousetrap patent（捕鼠器专利） QuestionA guaranteed profit?Are there costs associated with patent ownership?Does someones offer to buy your patent affect your costs?18Competition on Other FrontsTheCompetition on Other FrontsAnswer:It is the value of your foregone opportunity by not sellingQuestionHow

13、is the price of a “better” mousetrap patent determined?19Competition on Other FrontsAnsCompetition on Other FrontsIf the interest earned from investing the proceeds from the sale of the mousetrap patent exceeds the profit you expect to earn if you keep it, it is a profitable investment. 20Competitio

14、n on Other FrontsIf Competition on Other FrontsWhen uncertainty disappears:Profits are transformed into costs of production by competitive biddingIt is the value of your foregone opportunity by not selling21Competition on Other FrontsWheCompetition for the Key ResourceQuestionDo price supports have

15、any effect on the price of land?QuestionsDo licenses affect costs?Who gains from a new licensing system?ExamplesTaxicabs22Competition for the Key ResourCompetition and Property RightsUnder certainty, competition will eliminate profit.QuestionsWill the pursuit of profit lead to:Better mousetraps or t

16、he attempt to prevent others from selling?Increasing production of wheat or higher-priced land?Better taxi service or higher priced licenses?23Competition and Property RightCompetition and Property RightsAnswerDepends upon the rules of the game and the property rights created.24Competition and Prope

17、rty RightThe Ambivalence of Government PoliciesQuestionShould the government be relied on to preserve competition in the economy?AnswerConcern for competition is not the same as concern for competitors.25The Ambivalence of Government The Ambivalence of Government PoliciesA law that restricts competi

18、torsrestricts competition.Common justification for suchlaws is that they preserve competition by preventing“predatory” practices.26The Ambivalence of Government Selling Below CostShould there be laws that prevent firms from selling below cost?Many states have such laws.Why would some business firms

19、be in favor of such a law?They want to get protection from competition!27Selling Below CostShould thereSelling Below CostPublic viewPrice cutting may lead to monopoliesQuestionIs this bad?28Selling Below CostPublic view3What is Appropriate Cost?ProblemHow to determine the cost below which prices can

20、not be set.QuestionOnce an item is bought, isnt it a sunk cost?QuestionWhat should a firm do if they cannot sell their product before it spoils?29What is Appropriate Cost?ProblWhat is the Appropriate Cost?Marginal costs should be consideredBusiness people are concerned with:Additional revenues resul

21、ting from a decisionAdditional costs from the same decision30What is the Appropriate Cost?MWhat is the Appropriate Cost?Joint products and joint costsQuestionWhen would a grocer want to sell a newspaper below the wholesale cost?31What is the Appropriate Cost?J“Predators”（掠夺性定价者） and CompetitionProte

22、cting competitors is not the same as preserving competition. In reality, they are more likely opposites!Predatory PricingReducing prices below cost in order to drive out rivalsIntend to raise prices afterward to recoup losses32“Predators”（掠夺性定价者） and Compet“Predators” and Competition经济学理论不排斥掠夺性定价的可能

23、性，但是它确实带来一长串疑问:How long will it take for such a policy to work?The longer it takes the larger the short term lossesIs it likely that the predatory firm will be able to destroy enough of its rivals to secure the degree of market power it must have to earn enough long run profits to justify short term

24、 losses?What will happen to the physical assets and human assets of the firms forced out of business?33“Predators” and Competition经济学“Predators” and Competition为了消除（未来）更高价格的可能性，最低价格立法使得更高的价格成为确定的事实。接受一个已知确定的恶魔，以此避免未知不确定的恶魔！34“Predators” and Competition为了消Regulating Prices（管制价格）Prices should be set t

25、o enable firms to earn a reasonable profit.How will regulators determine the costs of running the enterprise?Incentive problems:Innovation?Cost control?35Regulating Prices（管制价格）Prices Regulating PricesQuestionWho will regulate the regulators?Capture Theory（俘获理论）Regulators tend to acquire an interest

26、 over time in the well-being of the industries for which they are responsible.36Regulating PricesQuestion38Regulating PricesExamplesBankingAirlinesTelephone37Regulating PricesExamples39Regulating PricesStandard argument for government regulation of prices:Competition cannot regulate in certain cases

27、Consumers will be at the mercy of greedy sellersThese arguments often kept us from asking:Is competition unable to constrain the behaviors of the firms in the regulated industry?We take it for granted that38Regulating PricesStandard arguRegulating PricesThe movement towards deregulation of the past

28、two decades has not settled all the issues.But history showed us that:There are more margins on which competition can occurCompetition has some advantages over commissions39Regulating PricesThe movement “Antitrust” Policy（反托拉斯政策）政府有时会采取一些旨在促进竞争的政策，常用理由：竞争是经济活动的有效协调机制，但是要保持充分的竞争，需要政府进行某些维护。 In US, fo

29、r example, Laws have been passed to promote competitionFederalStateLocal40“Antitrust” Policy（反托拉斯政策）政府有时“Antitrust” PolicySherman Antitrust Act（谢尔曼反托拉斯法） 1890 Forbids all contracts, combinations or conspiracies in restraint of interstate trade and all attempts to monopolize any part of interstate tr

30、ade.“Trust”: 19世纪的商人用法律托管（legal trusteeship）的方式防止竞争行为。该法案太笼统。必须是“不合理”，或对公共福利造成了重大威胁。41“Antitrust” PolicySherman Anti“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and ApplicationsClayton Act（克莱顿法） 1914 Mergers that “substantially” lessen competition were made illegal.Federal Trade Commission Act（联邦贸易委员会法）Created

31、 Federal Trade CommissionProhibited “unfair” practices42“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretaQuestionWhen does a merger（兼并） substantially lessen competition?HorizontalConglomerate（混合）VerticalQuestionWhat is an illegal trade practice?“Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications43Question“Antitrust” Poli

32、cyInSummaryRestriction on competitors will restrict their ability to compete.竞争从本质上来说是提供更多的机会，更多的机会意味着选择的范围更大，因而意味着更多的财富。 “Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications44Summary“Antitrust” PolicyInt但是，企业为扩展其提供的机会所采用的方式，经过或长或短一段时间，可能会缩减其他企业所能提供的机会。在什么情况下，我们才希望政府为了维持更大范围或长期的竞争局势而限制一家企业的竞争努力呢？ “Ant

33、itrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications45“Antitrust” PolicyInterpreta记住下面这一点非常重要：对政府政策最有效地施加压力的并非消费者，而是生产者的利益。这些政策的制定通常是源于生产者想让自己免受竞争之苦的强烈愿望。 “Antitrust” PolicyInterpretations and Applications46记住下面这一点非常重要：“Antitrust” Policy“Antitrust” PolicyVertical Restraints: Competitive or Anticompetitive

34、Vertical restraints have been controversial(1937 1976) Federal legislation exempted state-endorsed price-fixing agreements between manufacturers and retailers.47“Antitrust” PolicyVertical RQuestionsWhy would a manufacturer want retailers to charge more and sell less?Why would a manufacturer want few

35、er retailers selling its products?“Antitrust” PolicyVertical Restraints: Competitive or Anticompetitive48Questions“Antitrust” PolicyV“Antitrust” Policy The Range of Opinion（不同意见）QuestionIs the whole body of “antitrust” law perhaps more of a hindrance（阻碍） than a help to competition?49“Antitrust” Poli

36、cy The RangeOpinionRetain the Sherman Act and the anti-merger provision of the Clayton Act onlyThe Sherman and Clayton Acts, in their entirety, have made important contributions.They would be improved if they were more seriously enforced.They are harmless rhetoric（言辞）“Antitrust” Policy The Range of

37、Opinion50Opinion“Antitrust” Policy Th“反托拉斯”政策必然充满矛盾有关法律很少促进了竞争，它们更多的是增进了竞争者的保护者的利益，而非竞争的保护者的利益。那些无法通过向顾客提供价廉物美的商品进行有效竞争的企业有时根据反托拉斯法提出控诉，其真实目的在于能够说服法院提高价格或者降低竞争对手所提供商品的质量。可能阻碍了那些西欧和日本很常见的卡特尔协议的发展。“Antitrust” Policy The Range of Opinion51“反托拉斯”政策必然充满矛盾“Antitrust” PoliToward Evaluation（评论）Restrictions on potential