3 第二语言习得概论

1、第二语言习得概论An Outline of Second Language Acquisition ResearchFive hypotheses about second language acquisition1.The acquisition-learning distinction2.The input hypothesis 3.The monitor hypothesis4.The affective Filter hypothesis5.The natural order hypothesis 1)Acquisition vs. LearningThe American SLA s

2、cholar Stephen Krashen makes the distinction between acquisition and learning. Krashen holds that language acquisition is a subconscious process to acquire a language in natural settings, while language learning is a conscious process to obtain a language in school settings.Children obtain their mot

3、her tongue not through conscious learning, but the second language, though it can be acquired in appropriate linguistic context, is usually obtained in non-natural environment through formal instruction and conscious learning. 2. THE INPUT HYPOTHESISHow do we move from stage i, where i represents cu

4、rrent competence, to i + 1, the next level in second language acquisition? The input hypothesis makes the following claim: a necessary (but not sufficient) condition to move from stage i to stage i + 1 is that the acquirer understand input that contains i + 1, where understand means that the acquire

5、r is focussed on the meaning and not the form of the message.We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is a little beyond where we are now. The answer to this apparent paradox is that we use more than our linguistic competence to help us understand. We

6、 also use context, our knowledge of the world, our extra-linguistic information to help us understand language directed at us.1.Context Clue 1: definition Sometimes a writer knows that a word is unfamiliar or strange to many readers. To make the word easier to understand, the writer may include a de

7、finition of the word in a sentence.A. All other birthdays are called sing il( born day). The sixty-first birthday is called huan gup (beginning of new life.)B. The harbor is protected by a jetty-a wall built out into the water.C. Jane is indecisive, that is ,she cant make up her mind.Context Clue 2:

8、 RestatementMore often, you may find a restatement, which tells you almost as much as a definition.A. He had a wan look. He was so pale and weak that we thought he was ill.B. I am a resolute man. Once I set up a goal, I wont give it up easily.More often than not, the meaning of many words can be rea

9、dily guessed if you use your own experience or general knowledge of the subject.A. The door was so low that I hit my head on the lintel.Context Clue 3: General knowledgeContext Clue 4: Related informationSometimes you can make an intelligent guess of the meaning of some new words or expressions if y

10、ou put together related information from the surrounding text.A. She went to school for 12 years and she cant write a sentence?” Timken said. “They made an illiterate out of my daughter!”Context Clue 5: ExamplesExamples can also give you some clues or hints to the meanings of unfamiliar words.A. Sel

11、ect any of these periodicals: Time magazine, Newsweek, Readers digest, etc.B. She is studying glaucoma and other diseases of the eye.Context Clue 6: ComparisonWhen we compare things, we see how they are like each other. So comparisons in writing can give you clues to the meanings of unfamiliar words

12、.A. The snow was falling. Big flakes drifted with the wind like feathers.B. The hot-air balloon took off. It was as buoyant in the air as a cork（软木塞） in water.Context Clue 7: ContrastThe use a contrast can give you a hint to the meaning of an unfamiliar word.A. Jane was talking with others while Joh

13、n remained reticent all the time.B. Most of us agreed; however, Bill dissented.C. Peter was not frugal since he spent money so freely.The input hypothesis says the opposite. It says we acquire by going for meaning first, and as a result, we acquire structure! We may thus state parts (1) and (2) of t

14、he input hypothesis as follows:(1) The input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not learning.(2) We acquire by understanding language that contains structure a bit beyond our current level of competence (i + 1). This is done with the help of context or extra-linguistic information.Conscious learning

15、 is available only as a Monitor, which can alter the output of the acquired system before or after the utterance is actually spoken or written. It is the acquired system which initiates normal, fluent speech utterances.3.The monitor hypothesisAcquiredcompetenceLearned competence (the monitor)Output

16、Monitor can alter the output of the acquired system before or after the utterance is actually spoken or written. It is the acquired system which initiates normal, fluent speech utterances.The Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules, or conscious learning, play only a limited role in second lang

17、uage performance. Second language performers can use conscious rules only when three conditions are met. (i) Time. In order to think about and use conscious rules effectively, a second language performer needs to have sufficient time. For most people, normal conversation does not allow enough time t

18、o think about and use rules. (ii) Focus on form. To use the Monitor effectively, time is not enough. The performer must also be focussed on form, or thinking about correctness . Even when we have time, we may be so involved in what we are sayingthat we do not attendto how we are saying it.(iii) Know

19、 the rule. This may be a very formidable难以克服的requirement. Linguistics has taught us that the structure of language is extremely complex, and they claim to have described only a fragment of the best known languages. All the rules of EnglishSubset of English described by formal linguistsApplied lingui

20、sts knowledgeBest teachers knowledgeRules taughtRules actually learned by studentsRules used in performance(i) Monitor Over-users. These are people who attempt to Monitor all the time, performers who are constantly checking their output with their conscious knowledge of the second language. As a res

21、ult, such performers may speak hesitantly, often self-correct in the middle of utterances, and are so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency.(ii) Monitor under-users. These are performers who have not learned, or if they have learned, prefer not to use their consciou

22、s knowledge, even when conditions allow it. Under-users are typically uninfluenced by error correction, can self-correct only by using a feel for correctness (e.g. it sounds right), and rely completely on the acquired system.(iii) The optimal Monitor user. Our pedagogical goal is to produce optimal

23、users, performers who use the Monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication. 5 THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESISThe Affective Filter hypothesis states how affective factors relate to the second language acquisition process. (1) Motivation. Performers with high motiva

24、tion generally do better in second language acquisition (usually, but not always).(2) Self-confidence. Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in second language acquisition.(3) Anxiety. Low anxiety appears to be conducive to second language acquisition, whether measu

25、red as personal or classroom anxiety.InputLanguage Acquisition DeviceAcquired competenceFilterThe “affective filter” acts to prevent input from being used for language acquisition. Acquirers with optimal attitudes are hypothesized to have low affective filters.Classrooms that encourage low filters a

26、re those that promote low anxiety among students, that keep students “off the defensive.”5. The Natural Order hypothesisAcquirers of a given language tend to acquire certain grammatical structures early, and others later. In other words, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predic

27、table order.-Ing (progressive)PluralCopular ( “to be”)Auxiliary (progressive, as in “he is going”)Article(a, the)Irregular PastRegular PastIII Singular -sPossessive -sOther Theories about Language Learning The critical period for language acquisition The critical period hypothesis, advanced by neuro

28、biologist Eric Lenneberg, refers to a period in one s life extending from about age two to puberty青春期 , during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language without formal classroom instruction. The critical period for first language acquisition coincides with the period of br

29、ain lateralization偏侧性 . Brain lateralization is the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. Lateralization process is gradual and maturational. It seems to be human-specific. Left hemisphere Right hemispherelanguage and speech perception of nonling

30、uistic sounds analytic reasoning holistic reasoning temporal ordering visual and spatial skills Left hemisphere Right hemispherereading and writing recognition of patterns calculation recognition of musical melodies associative thoughtCaretaker speech is a modified speech usually for communication w

31、ith children. Children with little or no exposure to caretaker speech do not necessarily acquire their mother tongues more slowly than children with much exposure to caretaker speech. Contrastive Analysis is usually the analysis of similarities and differences between the mother tongue and the targe

32、t language to predict the main causes of the difficulties in the target language learning so that measures can be taken to overcome these difficulties. 4. 4 Inter-language and fossilizationInterlanguage is a variety formed in the transition of learners linguistic forms from their mother tongue to th

33、e target language. It is different from the mother tongue and the target language as well. It is the result of the learners use of their creatively-constructed linguistic rules to communicate in the process of second language learning. Therefore, it is systematic. Fossilization occurs when learners

34、linguistic forms stop approximating the target system and learners, therefore, fail to achieve native-like competence in the target language. Learner FactorsThe optimum age for second language acquisitionAlthough there is a critical period in language learning, it does not mean the younger the learn

35、er is, the better he is at learning a second language. The optimum age for SLA is early teenage. The cognitive abilities of the early teenagers have been considerably developed, but their brains are still plastic enough, because their brain lateralization has not been completed. MotivationMotivation

36、 can be divided into instrumental motivation and integrative motivation. Instrumental motivation occurs when SL learners learn a second language as an instrument for, say, obtaining a better job. Integrative motivation is social, which occurs when SL learners learn a second language in order to inte

37、grate themselves into the target language culture or become members of the target language community. AcculturationAcculturation is the process of SL learners adapting to the target language culture. PersonalityLearners personalities can be divided into extrovert personality and introvert personalit

38、y. One hypothesis is that learners with the outgoing personality get more opportunities to interact with the target language speakers and have more access to the linguistic input and more chances to practise, therefore, they are more likely to succeed in second language acquisition than the learners

39、 with introvert personality. L1 acquisition: It is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term language learning. (P268)Acquisition- naturally in communicative situationsLea

40、rning-a conscious process Relevant termsThe differences between learning and acquisition:language acquisition language learning In communicative settingsSubconscious process Acquired competenceImplicit knowledgeProcedural knowledge In schoolsConscious processKnowledge of rulesExplicit knowledge Decl

41、arative knowledge The behaviorist approach Background: a psychological theory of learning ( 1940s and 1950s) Its best-know advocator was B.F. Skinner.The behaviorist view: 1. There is nothing linguistic in the mind of the newborn baby.2. Language learning is the result of imitation, practice, feedba

42、ck on success, and habit formation.3. The quality and quantity of the language which the child hears, as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment, should have an effect on the childs success in the language learning. e.g.(Peter is playing with a dump truck wh

43、ile two adults, John and Cathy , look on)Peter: Get more.Cathy: Youre gonna put more wheels in the dump truck?Peter: Dump truck fell down. Dump truck.e.g.( HeiHei :2- year- old American ,Lance: his daddy , they are watching “Discoveries”)H: Whats that daddy?L: Its Jupiter.H: Jupiter, Jupiter, Its Ju

44、piter ,daddy.L: Yes.Criticism:1. Imitation and practice alone cant explain some of the forms created by the children.2. It cant account for the normal language development of children who rarely imitate and practice. 3. It cant explain the more complex grammatical structures of the language.The inna

45、teness approachBackground: The behaviorist hypothesis was challenged from the 1960s , especially under the influence of Noam Chomskys theories and cognitive psychology. The innateness hypothesis:1. Mind is not a blank.2. Children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in

46、 the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop. 3. Chomsky originally referred to this special ability as LAD and later as UG, which is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages. E.g. Children learn to walk and doesnt have to be taught.4.

47、 Natural language serves as a trigger to activate the device. Once it is activated, the child is able to discover the structure of the language.5. This approach also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation.Here is some of the evidence which have been us

48、ed to support Chomskys innatist position:1. Children all over the world go through the same stages in language acquisition.2. Children can learn any language equally well as long as they are in the right linguistic environment.3. Virtually all children successfully learn their native language at a t

49、ime in life when they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated. The interaction approachThe interaction position:1. Language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the child and the environment in which the child develops. 2. Children are born with a potentiality fo

50、r organizing experiences and comprehending symbols. This potentiality cant be brought into full operation unless it interacts with the environment. e.g. child-directed speech3. Interactionists are inclined to see language acquisition as similar to and influenced by the acquisition of other kinds of

51、skill and knowledge, rather than as something which is largely independent of the childs experience and cognitive development.In conclusion, each of the theories may help to explain a different aspect of childrens language development. And the nature of language acquisition is still an open question

52、.1. Behaviorism explains the acquisition of simple grammar.2. Innatism seems plausible in explaining the acquisition of complex grammar.3. Interactionism explains how children learn to use language.Early StagesAgeCharacteristicsExampleBabbling310 monthsVelar软腭音consonantsVowels,fricatives,nasalsSylla

53、ble-type soundsk ga:nba, maHolophrastic(one-word)以一个字显示整句意思的1218 months(1-1.5 years old)simple complex ideaMilk! Sheep! Truck!Two-word1820 months(1.52 years old)Combinations tied to the contextBaby chairEarly StagesAgeCharacteristicsExampleTelegraphic speech2436 months(23 years old)Telegraphic sente

54、nce structures of lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemesI want ball.Cat drink.Car going?Daddy go?Later multiword stage36+ monthsGrammatical or functional structures emergeI want a ball.My cat is drinking milk.History of SLA studies:1940s1970s )Contrastive analysis (comparison of L1

55、& L2) Error analysis (analysis of learner errors)Interlanguage (analysis of learner language)Contrastive analysis: researchers systematically compare the first language and the target language. Lado was the first to provide a comprehensive theoretical treatment and to suggest a systematic set of tec

56、hnical procedures for the contrastive study of languages. Lado claimed that those elements which are similar to the learners native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult.Contrastive Analysis and SLAexplain why some features of a target language were

57、 more difficult to acquire than othersbehaviourist-habit formationthe difficulty in mastering certain structures in a second language (L2) depended on the difference between the learners mother language (L1) and the language they were trying to learnThe hypothesis:1) L2 differs from L1, learner make

58、s errors2) Teachers can predict areas in which L2 learners will have difficulties and those where they wont, which is useful for preparing teaching materials. Transfer: “Transfer is influence that the learners L1 exerts on the acquisition of an L2”.Ellis (1997: 51)Positive transfer (facilitation) :

59、language learning consists mostly of the projection of the system of the first language to the system of the second language. Thus, language learning will be successful when the two languages happen to be similar. (Lado)Negative transfer (interference): Language learning will be unsuccessful when th

60、e second language happens to be very different. Lado (1957)L1 influence on L2: PronunciationMy wife is thirty. L1 influence on L2: Syntax I very much like you. L1 influence on L2: Semantics or pragmatics (Chinglish)His skin was smiling, but not his flesh.People Mountain People Sea.If you dont good g