环境科学和工程专业课程教案

1、第四单元阅读材料：Reading Material : Analytical Technique and Methodology第八单元：空气污染物的来源和类型第八单元 Reading Material : Type and Sources of Air Pollutants II J 阅读材料：空气污染物的类型和来源（）What are PCBs? 什么是多氯联苯？There are 209 possible chlorinated biphenyls, ranging in physical characteristics. 大概有209种氯化联苯，其物理性质不同。The mono-and

2、 dichloro biphenyls ( 27323-18-8), ( 25512-42-9) are colorless crystalline compounds that when burned in air give rise to soot and hydrogen chloride. 一氯联苯和二氯联苯（27323-18-8），（25512-42-9）是无色晶体的化合物，当它们在空气中燃烧会产生烟尘和氯化氢。The most important products are trichlorobiphenyls,tetrachlorobiphenyls, pentachlorobip

3、henyls and/ or hexachlorobiphenyls. 最重要的产品是三氯化联苯，四氯联苯，五氯联苯和/或六氯联苯。Chlorinated biphenyls are soluble in many organic solvents and in water only in the ppm range. 多氯联苯可溶于有机溶剂和仅在水的百万分之一ppm（part per million）的范围内溶解。Although chemically stable (including to oxygen of the air) they can be hydrolyzed tooxybi

4、phenyls under extreme conditions forming toxic polychlorodibenzofurans. 氯化联苯易溶于在许多有机溶剂和水只有在的范围内的可溶性。虽然化学稳定性（包括空气中的氧气）但是在一定条件下，多氯联苯可水解氧化成二氧化苯极端条件下形成的有毒的多氯代苯并二噁英。The PCB class of compounds received substantial attention and notoriety when in 1968, in Japan,accidental poisoning occurred by cooking rice

5、 in bran oil contaminated by PCBs. 在1968年，多氯联苯类化合物受到实质性的的关注和得到臭名，日本用受到多氯联苯污染的米糠油做饭的意外中毒事件。Over 1000 patients suffered from various morbid symptoms. 超过1000例患者出现各种病态症状。A similar poisoning occurred in Taiwan in 1979. Causative agents were considered to be coconaminants of PCBs such as polychlorinated d

6、ibenzofurans that are secondarily formed during heating of PCBs congeners in commercial PCB mixtures and require a second look at PCB toxicity. 1979年台湾有一个类似的中毒事件。病原体被认为是如多氯二苯并呋喃的多氯联苯，其次是PCBs多氯联苯同系物在商业PCB混合物在加热过程中形成的，需要第二次看看PCB的毒性。PCB regulation多氯联苯的管理Because of concerns regarding PCB s health effect

7、s and evidence of presence and persistence in the environment further manufacture of the chemical was banned under The 1976 Toxic Substance Control Act. 由于担心多氯联苯对健康的影响和证明存在以及持续在环境中会进一步制造化学物质的，在1976年美国有毒物质控制法中被禁止了。PCB regulations provide deadlines for removal of most in-use capacitors and transformer

8、s containing PCBs and limit time for storage for disposal to one year. 多氯联苯的管理提出最后期限为了最大去除使用电容器和变压器逗留的多氯联苯和限制储存一年就要处理。EPA has allowed continued use of PCBs in electrical transformers and capacitors when the agency did not pose unreasonable risk. 当经销产品不会产生过度的危险时，环境保护局允许继续使用含多氯联苯的电子电容器和变压器。Capacitors,

9、 except those in isolated areas should have been removed by October 1988, and transformers of a certain size in or near commercial buildings should be removed by October 1990. 电容器，除了那些分散地方的应该被移走在1988年10月之后，变压器的某一些型号和靠近商业建筑的应该被移走在1990年10月后。EPA regulations require that PCBs taken out of service be dis

10、posed of either by specially designed high temperature incinerators needed to break high concentrations of PCBs to harmless components or by alternate destruction methods approved by the agency. Environmental Protection Agency 美国环保署，法规要求PCB服务多氯联苯或者处置的，通过特别设计的高温焚化炉需要打破高浓度的多氯联苯的无害组件或替代由该机构批准的销毁方法。Oils

11、 contaminated with low concentrations (50-500ppm) may be disposed by high efficiency boilers. 低浓度（50500PPM）污染的油可以通过高效率的锅炉处理。The limited number of incinerators approved for PCB incineration and the high cost of building additional incinerators have given incentive for alternate destruction methods. A

12、lternate technologies must be capable of operating as effectively as EPA s incineration efficiency. 批准用于焚烧多氯联苯的焚烧炉数量被限制和成本高且附有焚烧炉的建筑鼓励使用一一分解的方法。选择的技术的运转效率必须能够达到环境保护局的焚烧效率。PCBs in electrical transformers 多氯联苯的电流体变压器There were 304 million lb of PCBs used as electrical fluid in approximately 150000 ask

13、arel ( non-flammable electrical fluid) transformers in the United States. 在美国有304百万磅的多氯联苯被当做电流体使用，大约150000阿斯卡列（不易燃的电流体）变压器。About 70000 PCB transformers are in or near commercial buildings that are open to the public. 大约70000多氯联苯变压器建在或靠近对公众开放的商业建筑。About 40000 of these transformers are owned by electr

14、ical utilities. Approximately 15000 of these transformers are used in the food and feed industry. 大约40000这些变压器缺少电设施。大约15000这些变压器被使用在食品和饲料工业。Utilities and other industries must maintain or dispose of approximately 150000 askareltype transformers that may develop leaks. 公用事业等行业必须保持或处置约150000氯代联苯型变压器可能

15、出现的漏洞。 Each year, an estimated 317 askarel-type transformers can be expected to leak. Each will lose about 5. 3 gal or 66 lb of PCBs. 公共设施和其他工业必须维护或处理大约150000阿斯卡列型变压器可能产生的泄露，每一年，估计317阿斯卡列型变压器被暴露泄露，将损失5.3/s或66磅多氯联苯。Transformers classification变压器的分类The EPA has three classification for transformers: 环保

16、局已对变压器三分类： PCB transformers contain 500 or more ppm PCBs. 多氯联苯变压器，多氯联苯含量在百万分之500或超过百万分之一。They must be inspected quarterly for leaks, and detailed records must be kept. 每季度被检查出的泄露会被详细的记录并保存。No maintenance work involving removal of the core is allowed .除去核心没有维持工作涉及的是被允许的。At the end of the transformers

17、 useful life, it must be destroyed in an EPA-approved facility, or the transformer liquid must be incinerated and the carcass landfilled. 在变压器有效寿命的尽头，它会被环境保护局支持的设施销毁，或变压器的液体被焚烧和外壳被掩埋。The courts and the EPA have held the original transformer owner liable for leakage that may occur for as long as the

18、carcass remains in the landfill. 环境保护局要呼吁变最初压器拥有者对液体泄漏负责任并且提供足够大的场地对变压器掩埋。PCB-contaminated transformers contain between 50 and 400 ppm PCBs and require annual inspection. The rule concerning disposal, maintenance, and record keeping are less restrictive and less costly than those for PCB transformer

19、s. 受多氯联苯污染的变压器，多氯联苯含量在百万分之50至百万分之400之间和要求必须每年检查。管理涉及处理、维护、记录保持在最小限制或者接近多氯联苯变压器要求的含量。Non-PCB transformers have less than 50 ppm PCBs and are exempt from the burdensome rules and requirements that apply to PCB and PCBs contaminated transformers. 没有多氯联苯的变压器，多氯联苯含量少于百万分之50和免除了一些繁杂的规则和要求比在应用于多氯联苯变压器和受多氯联

20、苯污染的变压器。NonPCB transformers are granted favor under the Toxic Substances Control Act. 没有多氯联苯的变压器被包含在美国有毒物质控制法里。 Analysis of PCBs 多氯联苯分析Analytical methods most frequently used for detecting chlorinated biphenyls are capillary column gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in the MID ( Multi

21、ple Ion Detection) mode and capillary column gas chromatography with ECD ( Electron Capture Detector). 分析法最频繁用于发现含氯联苯，在多离子检测的模式下顶空毛管气象色谱与质谱分析结合、顶空毛管气象色谱与电子捕获测器结合。HPLC ( High Pressure Liquid Chromatography) and infrared spectroscopy are applicable to a limited extent. 高效液相色谱和红外光谱适用于限制的范围。Summary PCB

22、determinations are also possible, though not usual. These require exhaustive chlorination and measurement of the decachlorbipheny content or dechlorination and subsequent biphenyl measurement.总结，多氯联苯的测定尽管不常用，也是有可能的。这是需要彻底的氯化作用好十氯联苯内容的测定或者脱氯后联苯的测定。Infrared tested on PCBs多氯联苯的红外测试Infrared thermal trea

23、tment technology was field tested for effectiveness on PCBs contaminated soil at two Superfund sites during 1986. 在1986年期间，红外热治疗技术在俩个超级基金地被现场检测受多氯联苯污染的土地的有效性。The transportable pilot system consisted of a primary furnace through which solid/ semisolid wastes were conveyed on a wire mesh belt. 移动式试验系是

24、由一个一次火炉通过固体/半固体废物被传送到钢丝网运输带。The heat source was supplied by electric glow bars in lieu of gaseous fuels. 火源通过发电光棒代替气体燃料提供。 Residence times and furnace temperatures could be controlled manually or automatically giving uniform ash. 为了提供均化灰分，停留时间和燃烧炉温度可以手动或自动控制。A secondary chamber, heated by electric o

25、r gaseous fuels, followed the primary furnace and provided temperatures m excess of 220 F. The system was designed to comply with all RCRA and TSCA requirements.二次火炉通过电或气体燃料加热，与一次火炉一样和提供的温度超过2200F。系统被设计成符合资源保护和回收法案以及美国有毒物质控制法要求。Select from Paul N. C. , High hazardous pollutants, Asestos, PCBs, dioxi

26、ns, biomedical wastes, PollutionEngineering, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1989unit 12 Text: Water Pollution and Pollutants第十二单元：水污染与污染物The relationship between polluted water and disease was firmly established with the cholera epidemic of 1854 in Londo, England. Protection of public health, the original purpose

27、of pollution control, continues to be the primary objective in many areas. 1854年英国伦敦爆发了大规模的流行性霍乱。此事明确地证实了污水和疾病之间的关系。当初以公共健康为目的所采取的污染控制，依然是许多地区的主要目的。 However, preservation of water resources, protection of fishing areas, and maintenance of recreational waters are additional concerns today. 然而，水资源的保持，

28、产鱼区的防护，以及娱乐活动用水的维持在今天也成为关注的焦点。Water pollution problems intensified following World War II when dramatic increases in urban density and industrialization occurred. 紧随第二次世界大战之后所产生的城市人口密度突增和工业化进程的加剧，都使得水污染问题越见明显。Concern over water pollution reached a peak in the mid-seventies.致使对于水污染的关注程度在70年代中期达到了顶峰。

29、Water pollution is an imprecise term that reveals nothing about either the type of polluting material or its source. The way we deal with the waste problem depends upon whether the contaminants are oxygen demanding, algae promoting, infectious, toxic, or simply unsightly. 水污染是一个不准确的术语，它并未指出污染物的种类和来源

30、。而我们处理废水问题的方式往往取决于以下几个方面：污染物是否需要氧气，是否助长藻类，是否有传染性，是否有毒，或者仅仅是否好看。 Pollution of our water resources can occur directly from sewer outfalls or industrial discharges (point sources) or indirectly from air pollution or agricultural or urban runoff ( nonpoint sources). 水源的污染可能直接来自生活污水的排放或工厂污水排放（点源），也可能间接地由

31、空气污染、农业排水或城市排水（非点源）所引发。 Chemically pure water 1s a collection of H2 0 molecules-nothing else. 化学上所谓的纯水仅仅是水分子的集合。Such a substance is not found in nature-not in wild streams or lakes, not in clouds or rain, not in falling snow, nor in the polar ice caps. 无论在野外的河流或湖泊、云层或雨水中，还是在下雪期间，极地的冰帽地区，这种物质在自然界均不能找

32、到。Very pure water can be prepared in the laboratory but only with considerable difficulty. 然而在实验室中可以制备非常纯净的水，但是存在一定的困难。Water accepts and holds foreign matter.因为水极易接受和容纳外来物质。 Municipal wastewater, also called sewage, is a complex mixture contammg water( usually over 99 percent) together with organic

33、and inorganic contaminants, both suspended and dissolved. 城市污水，也被称作生活污水，是一种复杂的混合物，它包含水（通常超过99）以及悬浮或溶解的有机和无机污染物。The concentration of these contaminants is normally very low and is expressed in mg/L, that is, milligrams of contaminant per liter of the mixture. 这些污染物的浓度通常很低并且以mg/L来表示，也就说，每升混合物含有多少毫克污染物

34、。This is a weight-to-volume ratio used to indicate concentrations of constituents in water, wastewater, industrial wastes, and other dilute solutions.重量与体积比也常用来表示在水、废水、工业废水和其它稀释溶液中的污染物浓度。 Microorganisms. Wherever there is suitable food, sufficient moisture, and an appropriate temperature, microorgan

35、isms will thrive. 微生物 任何地方只要存在适合的食物，充足的湿度和适当的温度，微生物即可大量繁殖。 Sewage provides an ideal environment for a vast array of microbes, primarily bacteria, plus some viruses and protozoa. 而生活污水为各种各样的微生物提供了一个理想的环境。这些微生物主要是细菌，某些病毒和原生动物。Most of these microorganisms in wastewater are harmless and can be employed

36、in biological processes to convert organic matter to stable end products. 废水中的大多数微生物是无害的，并且可借助生化过程，将有机物转化为稳定的最终产物。However, sewage may also contain pathogens from the excreta of people with infectious diseases that can be transmitted by contaminated water. 但是当一些人患有可通过有毒废水传播的传染性疾病时，其排泄物所携带的致病病原体，极有可能成

37、为污水的组成部分。 Waterborne bacterial diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis, viral diseases such as infectious hepatitis, and the protozoan-caused dysentery, while seldom a problem now in developed countries, are still a threat where properly treated water is not available for public use. 虽然在

38、发达国家，类似于水传播的细菌性疾病，例如霍乱、伤寒和肺结核，病毒性疾病例如传染性的肝炎和原生虫引起的痢疾，已经不再是问题，但是在那些经过适当处理过的污水不能被公共利用的地区仍然存在着很大威胁。Tests for the few pathogens that might be present are difficult and time consuming, and standard practice is to test for other more plentiful organisms that are always present ( in the billions) in the in

39、testines of warm-blooded animals, including humans.对于少量存在的病原体的检测是相当困难和耗时的。其标准做法是检测存在于包括人类在内的（数十亿）热血动物肠胃中的有机物。 Solids. 固体The total solids ( organic plus inorganic) in wastewater are, by definition, the residues after the liquid portion has been evaporated and the remainder dried to a constant weight

40、at 103. 废水中的总固体（包括有机的和无机的）是指液体部分被蒸发，并且在103烘干至恒重的残余物。 Differentiation between dissolved solids and undissolved, that is, suspended, solids are accomplished by evaporating filtered and unfiltered wastewater samples. 区分可溶性固体和悬浮固体的方法，是通过蒸发过滤的和没有通过过滤的废水样品来进行的。The difference in weight between the two drie

41、d samples indicates the suspended solids content. 两种烘干样品质量的差值即表示悬浮物的质量。To furt her categorize the residues, they are held at 550C for 15 minutes. The ash remaining is considered to represent inorganic solids and the loss of volatile matter to be a measure of the organic content.将残留物在550温度下保持15分钟以进一步

42、分类，剩余的灰代表了无机物，失去的挥发物则代表有机物的重量。 Suspended solids (SS ) and volatile suspended solids ( VSS ) are the most useful. 悬浮固体（SS）和挥发性的悬浮固体（VSS）是最有用的。SS and BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) are used as measures of wastewater strength and process performance. SS和BOD（生化需氧量）是废水的受污染程度及其过程性能的指标。VSS can be an indic

43、ator of the organic content of raw wastes and can also provide a mea:mre of the active microbial population in biological processes. VSS可以指示废水中有机物的含量，也可以衡量在生化过程里活性的微生物群。 Inorganic constituents. The common inorganic constituents of wastewater include: 无机成分 废水中常见的无机成分包括： 1.Chlorides and sulphates. Nor

44、mally present in water and in wastes from humans. 1氯化物和硫酸盐。常见于人类排放的废水和废物中。 2.Nitrogen and phosphorousD . In their various forms ( organic and inorganic ) in wastes from humans, with additional phosphorous from detergents. 2氮和磷。以各种形式（有机的和无机的）存在于来自人类排放的废物，和含磷的清洁剂。 3. Carbonates and bicarbonates . Norm

45、ally present in water and wastes as calcium and magnesium salts. 3碳酸盐和碳酸氢盐。通常以钙盐和镁盐的形式出现在水和废物中。 4. Toxic substances. Arsenic, cyanide, and heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn are toxic inorganics which may be found in industrial wastes.4有毒物质。砷，氰化物和在工业废水中可以找到的有毒无机物：Cd（镉）、Cr（铬）、Hg（汞）、Pb（铅）

46、、Zn（锌）等重金属。 In addition to these chemical constituents, the concentration of dissolved gases, especially oxygen, and the hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH are other parameters of interest in wastewater. 除了这些化学成分，溶解气体的浓度，尤其是氧气，用pH值所表示的H离子的浓度也是其它引起废水注意的指标。 Organic matter. 有机物 Proteins and car

47、bohydrates constitute 90 percent of the organic matter in domestic sewage. 生活污水中的有机物90是由蛋白质和碳水化合物组成。The sources of these biodegradable contaminants include excreta and urine from humans; food wastes form sinks; soil and dirt from bathing; washing, and laundering; plus various soaps, detergents, and

48、other cleaning products.这些可生物降解的物质包括人类的尿和排泄物、洗涤槽的食物残渣、土和洗澡的脏物、洗衣用水和洗烫水，及各种肥皂、洗洁精和其他清洁产品。 Various parameters are used as a measure of the organic strength of wastewater. 各种指标用来衡量废水中有机物浓度。One method is based on the amount of organic carbon ( total organic carbon, or TOC ) present in the waste. 一种方法是基于

49、废水中的有机碳的总量（即总有机碳TOC）。TOC is determined by measuring the amount of C02 produced when the organic carbon in the sample is oxidized by a strong oxidizer and comparing it with the amount in a standard of known TOC. 总有机碳是由样品中有机碳被强氧化剂氧化成二氧化碳的数量与已知的总有机碳的标准数量的比较所决定的。 Most of the other common methods are bas

50、ed on the amount of oxygen required to convert the oxidizable material to stable end products. 常见的另一种方法是根据把氧化物转化成稳定的最终产物所需要的氧气。Since the oxygen used is proportional to the oxidizable material present, it serves as a relative measure of wastewater strength. The two methods used most frequently to det

51、ermine the oxygen requirements of wastewater are the COD and BOD tests. 因为需氧量正比于污水中现存的氧化物，它可以用于废水浓度的相对衡量。通常确定废水需氧量的两种方法是COD（化学需氧量）和BOD（生化需氧量）的测定。The COD, or chemical oxygen demand, of the wastewater is the measured amount of oxygen needed to chemically oxidize the organics present; the BOD, or bioch

52、emical oxygen demand, is the measured amount of oxygen required by acclimated microorganisms to biologically degrade the organic matter in the wastewater. 化学需氧量，是用化学方法氧化有机物的需氧量。而生化需氧量，是通过适应环境的微生物的以生物的方式降解废水中的有机物的需氧量。 BOD is the most important parameter in water pollution control. It is used as a mea

53、sure of organic pollution, as a basis for estimating the oxygen needed for biological processes, and as an indicator of process performance. 在水污染控制理论中，生化需氧量是最重要的参数。生化需氧量用于测定有机物污染，是评估生物反应需氧量的基础和反应过程的指标。 The amount of organic matter in water or wastewater can be measured directly ( as TOC, for example

54、), but this doesn t tell us whether the organics are biodegradable or not. 我们可以直接地测定水或者废水中的有机物含量（例如测定总有机碳），但是这并不能告诉我们有机物是否有被生物降解。 To measure the amount of biodegradable organicsCD , we use an indirect method in which we measure the amount of oxygen used by a growing microbial population to convert (

55、 oxidize) organic matter to C02 and H2 0 in a closed system. 为了测定可生物降解的有机物量，我们用一种间接的方法，也就是在一个封闭的系统里，测定将有机物转化（氧化）成二氧化碳和水所用的生长的微生物群的耗氧量。The oxygen consumed, or biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), is proportional to the organic matter converted, 耗用的氧气，或生化需氧量，正比于有机物的转化量，and therefore BOD is a relative meas

56、ure of the biologically degradable organic matter present in the system. 因此，生化需氧量是系统中生物降解有机物的相对衡量。Because biological oxidation continues indefinitely, the test for ultimate BOD has been arbitrarily limited to 20 days, when perhaps 95 percent or more of the oxygen requirement has been met.因为生物氧化过程可以无

57、限次地进行，最终生化需氧量的测定被限定为20天，这个时间能够满足95%或以上的微生物氧气需求。Even this period, however, is too long to make measurement of BOD useful, 但是过程时间过长，致使生化需氧量的测定没有效用， so a five-day test, BODs , carried out at 20C, has become standard.所以一种五天式的测定，即将水样置于20的黑暗环境五天，作为生化需氧量的标准。The rate of the BOD reaction depends on the type

58、of waste present and the temperature and is assumed to vary directly with the amount of organic matter (organic carbon) present.生化需氧量的反应速度取决于存在的废水类型、温度以及假设其随着存在的有机物（有机碳）的数量的变化趋势。Unit 14Text: Water PurificationWater molecules have no memory, and therefore his silly to talk about the number of times t

59、hat the water you drink has been polluted and repurified, as if the molecules gradually wore out. 水分子是没有记忆力的，所以谈论被污染和被净化的饮用水的次数是没意义的，例如分子的逐渐损耗。All that is important is how pure it is when you drink it.而当我们饮水的时候到底它有多纯净才是最重要的。 The purification of water has developed into an elaborate and sophisticated

60、 technology. 水的净化已经发展为一项复杂的和尖端的技术。However, the general approaches to purification should be comprehensible, and in some cases even obvious, from a general understanding of the nature of water pollution. 然而，污水净化的本质的总方法是容易理解的，在某些情况下也是明显的。 Impurities in water were classified as suspended, colloidal, or