英语语言学的知识整理

1、实用标准文案Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义 ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题 ：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematicinvestigation of lin

2、guistic data, conducted with reference to somegeneral theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but ”:to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are madeaboutthem.to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.to check the hypotheses thus formed

3、 repeatedly against the observedfacts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. ( 普通语言学 )问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of themstudy?phonetics （语音学） the study of soundsphonology（音位学）study howsounds are put toge

4、ther and used to conveymeaningmorphology（形态学） study the way in which symbols or morphemes arearranged and combined to form words.syntax （句法学） the study of rules of forming sentencessemantics （语义学） the study of meaningpragmatics （语用学） the context of language useSociolinguistics （社会语言学）： The studies o

5、f all these social aspectsof language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics （语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics （应用语言学）： In a narrow sense it refers to theapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,es

6、pecially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:prescriptive （规定性） /descriptive （描写性）synchronic （共时）/diachronic （历时）speech（口语）/writing （书面语）langue （语言）/parole （言语）（ the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure 精彩文档实用标准文案Course in General Linguistics ）competence（

7、语言能力） /performance （语言应用） （the American linguistN. Chomsky）traditional grammar （传统语法） /modern linguistics （现代语言学）问题 ：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditionalgrammar?linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.modern linguistics regards the spoken la

8、nguage as primary, not thewritten. modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-basedframework.问题 ：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic ( 不考虑历史演进的 , 限于一时的 )approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic ( 探求现象变化的 , 历时的) one.Be

9、cause it is believed that unless the various states of a language indifferent historical periods are successfully studied, it would bedifficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historicaldevelopment.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions oflanguage in

10、its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of thistype.问题 ：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speechrather than to writing?Fromthe point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.The writing system of any language is always “invented ” by its user

11、sto record speech when the need arises. Even in today s world there arestill many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of hum

12、anspeech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised ” record of speech. And linguists datafor investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech,which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.精彩文档实用标准文案Design features

13、of language （7 个识别特征）arbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level ）productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units （底层结构 sounds ）duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning ）displacement 不受时空限制性（ handle generalization and abstraction ）cultural transmission 文化传递性interchangeability 互换性convention 约定性Functions of

14、language ：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6 种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）speaker addresser emotive 感情功能addresseeconative 意动功能context referential 所指功能messagepoetic 诗学功能contact phatic communion 交感功能codemetalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:phatic function 问候功能in

15、formative f. 信息功能 interrogative f. 询问功能expressive f. 表达功能 evocative f. 感染功能 directive f. 指令功能performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Hallidayideationalinterpersonal （indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships ）textual问题：How is Saussure s distinction between langue and parole similar toChomskys distinct

16、ion between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langueis abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete;it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively精彩文档实用标准文案stable; it does not change freq

17、uently, while parole varies from peopleto people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by theAmerican linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal users knowledge of therules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization ofthis knowl

18、edge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance iscaused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect oflanguage for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investi

19、gation, andthat linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and makethem the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is theideal speaker s competence, not his

20、 performance, which is too haphazardto be studied.问题：What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified byC. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animalcommunication system?arbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level ）productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units （底层结构 sounds

21、）duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning ）displacement 不受时空限制性（ handle generalization and abstraction ）cultural transmission 文化传递性interchangeability 互换性convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）the study of the phonic medium of languagelook at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related

22、 points of view.study the sounds from the speaker s point of view articulatoryphonetics （发音语音学）look at the sounds from the hearer s point of viewauditory phonetics（听觉语音学）study the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves acousticphonetics （声学语音学）study how sounds are produced, transmitted and

23、perceived.Organs of speech:精彩文档实用标准文案three important areas The pharyngeal cavity the throat the oral cavity the mouth the nasal cavity the nose The pharyngeal cavity windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords the oral cavity tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teethridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInterna

24、tional Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）diacritics 附加符号broad transcription （宽式标音） the transcription with letter-symbolsonlynarrow transcription （ 严式标音）the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacriticsClassification of English speech soundstwo broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowel

25、s/consonantstwo ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place ofarticulationIn terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glidesIn terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottalbi

26、labi Labio-dent denta alveol palat vela glottal al l ar al r alstops VL p t kVD b d gfricati VL f s ? hvesVD v e z ?affrica VL (t ? ) t ?tesVD (d? ) d?nasals VD m n ?liquids VD l/rglides VD w jClassification of English vowels精彩文档实用标准文案criteria : （monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mou

27、th: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/laxfront central backclose i: u:i uSemi-clo e ? :se? ? :Semi-openopen ? ? ?a a:diphthongs 双元音 / ei / / ai / au / / ? u /

28、? i / i ? / ? / u ? /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics: Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunicatio

29、n.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位） : It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound,but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certainphonetic context.精彩文档实用标准文案Allophone （音

30、位变体） : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of thatphoneme.Phonemic contrast （音位对立）Complementary distribution （音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs （最小对立体）： 含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Ph

31、onological Analysis （音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase,whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds: 描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individualdifference or regional differences instea

32、d of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonologysequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, thecombination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must

33、 be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l / r / w /assimilation rule: 同化规则deletion rule ：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）stress （单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishesmeaning.Syllable 音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) wit

34、h optional initialand final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。句子里读重音的词：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronounstone （词汇层面）精彩文档实用标准文案English is not a tone language Chinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the

35、fourth fallintonation （句子层面）English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone问题：What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why?Speech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic

36、evolution, speech is priorto writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ” byits users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today s worldthere are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role th

37、an writingin terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of humanspeech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised ” record of speech. And linguists datafor investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech,which they regarded as authentic.问题

38、：What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called“voicing ”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants inEnglish.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点：the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and wordstructure

39、the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms ofwords through the use of morpheme construct.it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit thathas mea

40、ning and syntactic function.four facets:精彩文档实用标准文案Sounds (phonology) Constructions (syntax)Meanings (semantics)Forms of words2 词性分类open class words: 名、动、形、副 are the content words of a languageclosed class words: 连、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few newwords are added3 词素有关? Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位

41、，包括声音和意义， abstract units( 任意性)? Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音? Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类 morphemes Free morpheme( 自由词素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself bound morpheme(粘着词素 ) ：A morphemethat must be attached to anotherone lexical morphemes/ derivational morph

42、emes( 派生词素 , 包括前后缀 ):They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes inflectional morphemes( 屈折词素 ) ： 词类不发生变化5 单词定义： WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by nativespeakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of

43、 a language to makesentences, whichare combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme( 词位). A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 单词结构： StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the majorcomponent of it

44、s meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional andderivational morphemes can be added.Base: 词基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements tomodify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don t精彩文档实用标准文案

45、belong to a lexical category.7 单词合成： Word formationmorphological rules productive morphological rulesderivationcompounds几点注意：Whenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwillbe like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n

46、.（不总是这样）The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of itsparts.8 单词合成过程：compoundingaffixation or derivationBlends 混合词Abbreviation 缩略语shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词Initials 按字母拼读的单词Clippings 缩写词backformation 逆构词法9 要点Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as

47、grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in,and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally knownas functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定义It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern t

48、heformation of sentences.2 四大派别traditional syntax 传统学派structural syntax 结构主义学派（索绪尔）transformational syntax 生成学派（乔姆斯基）（本书重点学习）functional syntax 功能学派（哈里德）3 范畴 Categories精彩文档实用标准文案Noun (N) Verb (V)Major lexical categoriesAdjective (A)Preposition (P)Word-level categoriesDeterminer (Det) 限定词/ 成分Degree wo

49、rds (Deg) 程度词Minor lexical categories Qualifier (Qual) 修饰语Auxiliary (Aux) 助词Conjunction (Con) 连词Syntactic categories 句法范畴的定义：The fact that words in all humanlanguages can be grouped together intoa relatively small number of classes.注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to thesy

50、ntactic study.Major lexical categories ( 主要词汇范畴 ) play a very important role insentence formation and they are often assumedto be the heads around whichphrases are built.Minor lexical categories ( 次要词汇范畴 )Meaning 意义Three criteria to determine a word s category inflection 屈折变化Distribution 分布? It is m

51、isleading to assume that a words category can be toldstraightforward from its meaning:nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to differentword categories.Phrases are syntacti

52、c units that are built around a certain word category.The phrase is built around the word category.精彩文档实用标准文案The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成。短语单词词素音节短语层面任何短语都有 2 个层面单词层面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phras

53、eAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:head/termed head 中心语/ 中心成分 : The word around which a phrase isformedspecifiers 标志语/ 标志成分： The words on the left side of the headscomplements 补语/ 补足语/ 补足成分： The words on the right side of theh

54、eads7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则定 义 ：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP(Det) N (PP) VP(Qual) V (NP) AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule公式一： XP (specifier) X (complement)X Theory

55、（X 标杆理论）X : The intermediate level formed by the head and the complementbetween word level and phrase level.X Theory: (specifier) X (word)精彩文档实用标准文案X =X (complement)Coordination rule ( 并列规则)Coordinate structures ( 并列结构 )Coordination ( 并列，并列关系 )Four important properties of coordination ：there is no l

56、imit on the numberof coordinated categories that can appearprior to the conjunction.a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.coordinated categories must be of the same type.the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.公式二：