语言学期末考试考点一览

1、Chapter1Linguistics考点1:定义（与择题或填空题|）Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Languagedistinguisheshumanbeingsfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.Linguistics:thescientificstudyofhumanlanguages.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyones

2、ociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.（判断题）注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。Languageisvocal1） Theprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.2） Writingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Wordisthesmallestunitthatcanbeused,byitself,asacompleteutterance.词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位考点2：Designfeatures语言的定义特征

3、（分析大题）Designfeatures:thedistinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguagethatessentiallymakehumanlanguagedistinguishablefromlanguagesofanimals.（定义填空题）语言的四个Designfeatures也是区别人类语言好动物语言的特征A、Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。Differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameob

4、jectindifferentlanguages.（语素音义关系的任意性）Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.(语言在句法层面是圭任意性)【判断题】Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成，即规约性任意性具有两个层面，而非anylevel!(判断题)ArbitrarinessfMakeslanguagepotentiallycreativelanguage-conv

5、entionfMakeslanguagesystematicB、Duality双重性，二元性Humanlanguageisproductiveorcreativeduetodualityandrecursiveness(递归也(R空题)Thestructuralorganizationoflanguageintotwoabstractlevels:Atthelowerlevel(thesecondarylevel):meaningfulunitsAtthehigherlevel(theprimarylevel):meaninglesssegmentsExpressionofduality:1.

6、 Combinemeaninglesssoundsintomeaningfullinguisticunits2. CombinesmallunitsintobigunitsC、Creativity创造性Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.(recursesentence)Recursiveness:itreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutdefinitelimit.D、Displacemen

7、t移位性Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofcommunication.（定义填空题）移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体，时间或观点。动物语言与人类语言移位性的表现（|判断题|）Suchanimalsareunderaimmediatestimuluscontrol”.Humanlanguageis,onthecontrary,stimulusfree.（动物语言

8、会受到直接刺激控制）Ourlanguageenablesustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdonotexistordonotyetexist.考点3:FunctionsofLanguage语言的功能A、Theinformativefunction（信息功能）Informativefunction:themajorroleoflanguage;languageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.B、InterpersonalFunction（人际功能）Interpe

9、rsonalFunction:themostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.eg:DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant等表称呼的C、Theperformativefunction（施事功能）:Theperformativefunction:Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings“orperformactions.用说话表示行为D、Theemotivefu

10、nction（情感功能）：Theemotivefunction:oneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.口标志性语句：swearword（誓言）、obscenities（侮辱之词）、involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery、conventionalwords/phrases,eg:- God,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,

11、Ugh我的妈呀，老天爷啊，晕E、Phaticcommunion（寒暄功能）Theuseoflanguagetoestablishanatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.E.g.Greetings,Farewells,andCommentsontheweather,etc.F、Therecreationalfunction（娱乐功能）Theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit- suchasababy'sbabblingorachanter'schanting.G、Metalingualfunction（元

12、语言功能）Metalingualfunction:ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself,talkingabouttalkandthinkingaboutthinking.- Tobehonest;onsecondthought;totellyouthetruth;asamatteroffact;thatistosay;- Suchexpressionsareusedmostfrequentlywhenwewanttoexpatiatethemeaningofformerclausesinanotherwayinargumentation.Itmakesth

13、elanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive（自我反身性）考点4:MainbranchesofLinguistics（考查定义！）1. Soundfphonetics语音2. Soundsfphonology音系学3. Word-morphology形态学4. Words/sentencefsyntax句法学5. Meaningfsemantics语义学6. Meaninginacontextfpragmatics语用学（languageinuse）Macrolinguistics（微观语言学）Psycholinguistics心里语言学Sociolinguistics社

14、会语言学考点5：distinctionsinlinguisticsA、Descriptivevs.Prescriptive描述性与规定性PeoplesayX.Descriptive（Todescribethelinguisticfactsobserved）Don't'sayX.Prescriptive（Tolaydownrulesfor“correct"linguisticbehavior）ModernlinguisticsismostlyDescriptive.现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象TraditionEnglishbelongstoPrescriptive.

15、古代英语则有许多条条框框B、Synchronicvs.diachronic共时性与历时性（判断题）Asynchronic（共时的）description,thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime,takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation（staticstate）.?AGrammarofModernGreek;?TheStructureofShakespeare'sEnglish?EnglishExamined:TwoCenturiesofCommentontheMother-Tongue.?Prote

16、anShape:AStudyinEighteenth-centuryVocabularyandUsage.?TheCategoriesandTypesofPresent-DayEnglishWord-Formation.Diachronic（历时的）:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.（dynamicstate）?Pejorative（轻蔑语）SenseDevelopmentin.English?PejorativeSenseDevelopmentinEnglish.C、Langue&parole语言和言语Langue（la

17、nguage）:说话者的语言能力thegeneralizedrulesoflanguageParole（speaking）:语言上的实际表现theapplicationofrulesD、CompetenceandperformanceCompetence:theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage（语言能力）Performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations（语言运用）Langue-paroleCompetence-performanceLangueisasocialproduc

18、tandasetofconventionsforacommunitySaussurelooksatlanguagefromCompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividualN.Chomskydealswithhisissuesasociologicalorsociolinguisticpsychologicallyorpointofviewpsycholinguistically.Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure.就词的

19、内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。Chapter2SpeechsoundWhatarethethreecavitiesofthevocaltract?Thepharyngealcavity:咽月空Theoralcavity:口月空Thenasalcavity:鼻腔G:velar(软腭音)：舌后部抬升抵住软腭所发出的音kg?w?kasin'cat'gasin'get'?asin'sing'wasin'wet前元音：由舌的前部发出舌尖抵下齿，舌前部向硬腭抬起i:ie?考,点1:Consonants辅音Vowels元音ftlMJUier

20、<ufE'IhueArtl仁uihUIuriBilabialJLaAiioAlvesImjtPalatal飞1瓯GlottalPhtd1mntrirativgfV9dKZS3h*ppmidmaitr(W)JJwl.iivt-ralI左边：voiceless右边：voicedStop爆破音Nasal鼻音Fricative摩擦音Lateral边音Affricate塞擦音会描述辅音,（填空题门找出两个辅音共同的特点）eg:pvoicelessbilabialstopbvoicedbilabialstop他们的共同特点是都具有bilabialstop考点2:元音的描述FrontCentr

21、alBackUngroundedRoundedUngroundedTenseLaxTenseLaxTenseLaxTenseLaxHighMidLow参见P36ClassificationofRPandGApurevowelsEg:love入midbacklaxungroundedvoel,点|:会判断broadtranscription宽式音标与narrowtranscription严式音标的区另1Jeg:peakpi:kbroadtranscriptionnarrowtranscription卜点|Minimalpairs（最小对立体）Fourrequirementsforidentify

22、ingminimalpairs:a.彼此的语音数量相等*1) Theyhavethesamenumberofsoundsegments.(dipdisk)b.彼此的意义不同2) Theyaredifferentinmeaning.bad)3)Theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment.c.彼此仅存在一个语音的差异*(bit语音差异出现在4) Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.d.同一位置上pill/bill;pill/till;till/kill;kill/dill/;dill/gillcut/but;

23、big/peg;peak/leapPhones(首素)Phone:aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Allophones:variationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositions.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Theminimaldistinctivespeechso

24、unds-PhonemesVariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.thenon-distinctivespeechsoundsTworequirementsforphonestofallintothesamephoneme:满足allophones的两个条件：1) allophonesofthesamephonemeshouldbeincomplementarydistribution.必须形成互补关系/l/l/V(clearl)eg:leadl/V(darkl)eg:feelNotallthephones(sounds)in

25、complementarydistributionareconsideredtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme-theyhavenophoneticsimilarity.(成互补分布的不定都属于同音位)2) theymustbearphoneticsimilarity.发音近彳以忤点|Assimilation(同化)(1) withinasyllablecank?n?tentht?n即nsinks?kn(2) Acrosssyllables音节内P42ex.2-1-2-3?/+nasaln/+dental?/_+velar跨音节P43ex.2-4nasalizatio

26、n鼻音化dentalization齿音化velarization软腭化pan?caken<?kvelarsun?glassesn?gvelar(3)Acrosswordboundaries跨过词的界限P43ex.2-5Youcan?keepthemHecan?gonown<?kvelarn一？gvelarfivepastpcusl|*|必IlfpEStb*lovetoIwtaTIE司匚.hastohjeztadrascanbeshown|e.losefive-nilluizfnivinl-*liiisfaivriil£edgetoedgeed3taed3fetftaeds

27、Chapter3Morphology考点1:定义!Morphology形态学:thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponentsMorphemesMorphemes（语素）：Thesmallestmeaningfulcomponentsofwords.smallestunitthatcarriesmeaningPhoneme（词素）：smallestunitthatcandistinguishmeaning考点2:词素的分类A、in

28、termsoftheircapacityofoccurringaloneFreemorphemes自由语素Boundmorphemes黏着语素B、Poly-morphemicwordsotherthancompoundsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.rootthepartleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved词根stemthepartleftwhenacertainaffixisremoved词干affixthepartwhichisattachedtootherwords;usuallyboundmorphemes词缀C、Inflec

29、tionalmorphemes曲折词Derivationalmorphemes派生词题目形式：考查词语的分析，如：organizations这个词语词干是？答：organization（词干，去掉具有语法意义的部分）词根是？答：organizeHcation分析词缀意义Chapter4FromWordtoText考点1：DefinitionofsyntaxSyntaxisthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.句法学是研究句子内部组成/成分间的关系考点2:种句法关系（给出例子，写出反

30、映的句法关系RelationsA、纵向关系【RelationofSubstitutabilityORVerticalRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeach在相同结构的句子中，语法othergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.上可以互相替的词类或语词的集合e.g.Thesmiles.manboygirlB、横向关系【AssociativeRelations（联想关系）ORParadigmaticRelations（纵聚合关系）】Yes

31、terday.eg:Hewentthere-lastweek.Thedaybefore.C、同现关系【RelationofCo-occurrenceWordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.同现关系指小句中不同集合的词语允许或要求和另一集合或类别中的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定部分。eg:(Precededby)NP(followedby)Jthestrongmansmi

32、lesJtheprettygirlLcriestheyoungboysings考点3:IC的缩写Immediateconstituents直接成分(选择题)TodismantleagrammaticalconstructioninthiswayiscalledIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISorICanalysis.直接成分分析法(a)Treediagram树形图(分析题)DetNNPDetThegirlatetheapplePhrasal-levelS=NP+VPVP=V+NPNP=Det+NWord-levelDetthe,a,etc.Ngirl,apple,etc

33、.Vate,took,etc.(b)Bracketing括号法(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple)Bracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit.向心结构和离心结构（选择题）考点4:EndocentricandExocentricConstructionEndocentricConstructions(向心结构)isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalentt

34、othatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.?verbphrases动词短语?gerundialphrase动名词短语Swimminginthelakeis.?participialphrase分词短语(bridge)damagedbeyondrepair.?infinitivephrase不定式(mypurposeis)tocheerupeverybody.?complexverbalphrase复合动词短语HewillbelivinginBei

35、jing.ExocentricConstructions(离心结构)Agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre"or"Head"insidethegroup,usuallyincluding:- thebasicsentence(subject+predicate)- theprepositionalphrase- thepredicate(verb+ob

36、ject)construction- theconnective(be+complement)construction区别：向心结构至少有一个head;Coordination并列关系twoormoreheadsEndocentricConstructionsl(所有的并列结构都属于向心结构，"and"、"or"、“but”)Subordination从属关系onehead离心结构则没有head考点5:predicate与predicator的区别Predicate述谓成分：amajorconstituentofsentencestructureinab

37、inaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.谓语是指在句子结构二分法中除主语之外的其他所有成分。Predicateincludesconstituentssuchasverb,objectcomplement,etc.Predicator（谓语动词）：verborverbsincludedinapredicate.考点6:clause与phrase的区别(1) Clause有自己的逻辑主语、谓语；phrase则没有完整的句子(2) Clause功能上与句子相似；ph

38、rase只是在语法上不Chapter5Meaning（SenseRelations涵义关系）考点1定义（选择和填空）I、Synonymy同义关系Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.（Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.）n、Antonymy反义关系Antonymymeansoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.出、Hyponymy上下义关系（MeaningInclusiveness意义

39、内包关系）Hyponymyisamatterofclassmembership.（AisincludedinB.）Super9£dinate_上也f:TheupperterminthissenserelationHyponym:ThelowertermsCo-hyponyms同下义词:membersofthesameclass?Cf.:chairandfurniture,roseandflowerWhatarecharacteristicsofhyponymy?（判断题）上下义词都可缺失！1. asuperordinatemaybeasuperordinatetoitself.个上坐

40、标词同时是它自己的上坐标词?auto-hyponym自我下义词：animalisahyponymofitself2. asuperordinatemaybemissing上坐标词会缺损（判断题）-red,green,blue,black,white3. hyponymsmaybemissing下义词也会缺损（判断题）uncles:叔叔，伯伯，舅舅,姑父考点2:Typesofsynonyms同义词类型1. Dialectalsynonyms:-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglishAutumn

41、=falllift=elevatorluggage=baggagelorry=truckpetrol=gasolineflat=apartment2. Stylisticsynonyms:synonymsdifferinginstyle-Somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.- daddy,dad,father,maleparent- start,begin,commence- kid,child,offspring-kickthebucket,die,passaway,decease翘辫子，

42、呜呼，仙逝，去世3. Differinginemotivemeaning(mendatoryVs.derogatory)tough-mindedruthlessresoluteobstinateshrewdsly,craftychildlikechildishstout,plumpfleshy,tubbyslender,slimlean,skinny4. Collocationsynonyms-Differintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.-rottentomatoes,addle

43、deggs,rancidbacon5. SemanticallydifferentsynonymsDifferslightlyinwhattheymean.Surprisehastwosynonyms:amazeandastound,while“amaze"usedinanyoccassionifyouwanttoconvey.surprised,disbelief.bothnegativeandpositivefeelings,“astound“usedsometimesbutmoreonbiggeroccassions.- Iwasthatthemayorhadtakenbrib

44、es.A.amazedB.astounded- Iwasathisconduct.A.amazedB.astounded考点3:Typesofantonymy:反义词特征(百择或填空)1. Gradableantonymy等级反义关系hotVs.cold2. Complementaryantonymy互补反义关系maleVs.female3. Converseantonymy对比反义关系teacherVs.pupil心点4:给出一对反义词，判断其属于那种反义类型Gradableantonymy等级反义关系?goodbad?bigsmall一等级反义关系的特征I.Gradable等级的Thenu

45、mberofapairdifferintermsofdegree.Thedenialofoneisnotnecessarilytheassertionoftheother.(good-bad)每对反义词的成员表示的性质是程度上的差别。对一方的否定并不一定是对另一方的肯定。?Canbemodifiedbyvery.?Mayhavecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.?Canhaveintermediategroundlikemedium.2 .Differentnorms不同的规范ThereisnoabsolutecAterionbywhichwemaysaysomet

46、hingisgoodorbad,bigorsmall.Thecriterionvarieswiththeobjectdescribed.没有绝对的标准可用来判断某物good还是bad,big还是small,标准随对象而改变。?Abigcar-asmallplane.3 .Havingacoverterm有覆盖词Onememberofapair,usuallythetermforthehigherdegree,servesasthecoverterm.一对反义词中，那个表示较高程度的单词通常可以用作整个性质的覆盖词。?old&young?Howoldareyou?*Howyoungare

47、you?(2)Complementaryantonymy互补反义关系alive-deadmale-female互补反义关系特征1.Complementary互补的Themembersofapairinthistypearecomplementarytoeachother.Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,thedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother.这种反义词中的成员彼此互补。不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方实用标准文案的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。(alive-dea

48、d)- Can'tbemodifiedbyvery.- Haven'tcomparativeandsuperlativeforms.- Haven'tintermediateground.2.Absolutenorms绝对的规范Thenorminthistypeisabsolute.Itdoesnotvarywiththethingawordisappliedto.互补反义词依据的规范是绝对的，它不会随着词所指事物的不同而改变。-Thecriterionforseparatingthemalefromthefemaleisthesamewithhumanbeingsan

49、danimals.3.Nocoverterm无覆盖词?Thereisnocovertermforthetwomembersofapair.?一对互补反义词成员没有一个覆盖词。一Isitaboyoragirl*Howmaleisit?Gradableantonymy和Complementaryantonymy的特征GradableantonymyComplementaryantonymygoodbadbigsmallalive:deadmale:femaleGradableComplementary-Canbemodifiedbyvery.-Mayhavecomparativeandsuperl

50、ativeforms.-Canhaveintermediategroundlike-Can'tbemodifiedbyvery.-Haven'tcomparativeandsuperlativeforms.-Haven'tintermediateground.medium.?Differentnorms?AbsolutenormsAbigcar-asmallplane.-sexinhumanandanimal?HavingacovertermNocoverterm-Howoldareyou?-*Howmaleisit?(3)Converseantonymy反向反义关系(

51、Relationalopposites关系对立)?buy:sellgive:receivelend:borrowgo:come?parent:childhusband:wifeabove:belowThisisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.其中的成员并不构成肯定否定的对立?Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities两实体间的种反义关系-Onepresupposestheother.-Co

52、mparativedegrees,bigger:smallerbetter:worse所有的比较级两个反义词都属于Converseantonymy反向反义关系Eg:better-worsehigher-lowerChapter8Languageinuse本章考点1:Semantics（语义学）与Pragmatic（语用学）的区别（定义题）Semantics:定义：Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitselfTherefore,mea

53、ningsofwords,sentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.Pragmatics:定义：Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageuseisleftunconsidered.Therefore,contextistakenintoconsideration.（Pragmaticsisusuallyconcernedwiththemeaningsthatsentenceshaveinparticularcontextsi

54、nwhichtheyareused.）本章考点2:I、记住三个名称（填空题或选择题）locutionaryact（言内行为）illocutionaryact（言夕卜行为）perlocutionaryact（言后行为）n、ThedefinitionofGrice'stheorylogicandConversationalImplicature定义：ConversationalImplicatureisatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.出、合作原则(分析题之一)TheCooperativePrinciple(CP)合作原则Participantsofaconversationobservewillinglyorunwillinglytheprinciple:"Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordir