语言学_Chapter 4_Syntax

1、Chapter FourSyntaxThe Study of STeaching Objectivev Critical ThinkingpPresent and Solve Problemsv Understand MacroscopicallypStudy of sentence from different perspectivesv Understand MicroscopicallypChomsky: Generative 第四章第四章 句法学句法学v 句子是由什么构成的？人们是如何产生和理解句子的？句子是由什么构成的？人们是如何产生和理解句子的？v 句子在语法系统中处于什么样的地位

2、？句子在语法系统中处于什么样的地位？v 构成句子的成分（如，短语、词）是如何构成的？构成句子的成分（如，短语、词）是如何构成的？v 不同的句子类型是如何产生的？不同的句子类型是如何产生的？v 以上问题是否可以通过以上问题是否可以通过形式分析形式分析来描述？来描述？v 是否可以用一些是否可以用一些普遍的规则普遍的规则概括句子的结构？概括句子的结构？p形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。vSyntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way

3、words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.vMore versions, v Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in

4、sentence What is syntax?vWhat is the relationship between syntax, morphology and phonology?The written system of language Sentence syntax Clause syntax Phrase syntax Word ExamplesI think that that that that that student wrote on the blackboard was wrong. lI met a man( who had a son (whose wife sold

5、cookies (that she had baked in her kitchen (that was fully equipped with electrical appliances (that were new).) vI think (that that that that that student wrote on the blackboard is wrong). Approaches to the study of sentences1.The traditional approach2.The structural approach3.The generative appro

6、ach4.The functional approach SentenceRule-governedsentenceformation TraditionalapproachWord Structuralapproach Generativeapproach F The traditional approach takes a sentence as (1) (句子观) a sequence of words. (2) (研究视角) It studies sentence formation by studying words in terms of categories （范畴）and th

7、eir interrelationships. Traditionalapproach 数、性、格、时、体、态数、性、格、时、体、态 一致、支配一致、支配Sentence: traditional approachsimple Sentence complex复合句复合句non-simple compound并列句并列句 The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system), not as isolated bits. This approa

8、ch to grammar, based on Saussures ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words. Structuralapproach 横组合、纵聚合 直接成分分析法 Generative approach is mainly referred to transformational-generative grammar (TG 转换生成语法) proposed by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky proposes that the grammars of all human la

9、nguages share a common framework. Generativeapproach 深层结构 表层结构转换规则vJane visited Johns brothers wifes mothers fathers cousins friends store. vS NP VP (V+ NP) A functional approach offers an alternative to structuralism (formalism)pLanguage cannot be described without examining its function. Systemic-

10、functional approach starts from clause and extends itself to discourse. It involves what language can show (ideational function), what kind of relation can it establish (interpersonal function), and in what way (textual function). FFunctional sentence perspective denotes the analysis of a sentence i

11、n respect to its communicative function. The basis of the sentence is known information, called the theme (topic, given), while that which is said about the known information is considered to be the rheme (comment, new)Sentence: functional approach Yes/no Interrogative Indicative wh- DeclarativeSent

12、ence Imperative Analysis of generative approachvChapter contentsvThe girl ate an apple.4.2 how to define each word in the sentence?4.5 How is the sentence formed?4.3, 4.4 How to describe the phrases involved?A revised outline for Chapter 4 v4.2 Word categories （word-formation rules morphology）v4.3 &

13、amp; 4.4 Phrase categories pphrase-formation rules (4.3)pPhrase elements (4.4)v4.5 & 4.6 Sentence categoriespSentence-formation rules (4.6) 4.2 Word Categories（范畴范畴）Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sente

14、nce, a noun phrase or a verb. 4.2.1Word-level (Lexical )categories v Major English lexical categories实义语类v Noun (N) student, lecture, Johnv Verb (V): like, read, gov Adjective (Adj): tall, lovely, redv Preposition (P) about, over, English minor lexical categories功能语类功能语类v Minor English lexical categ

15、oriesv Determiner (Det): the, a, this, thosev Degree words: quite, very, more, sov Qualifier (Qul): often, always, seldom, almostv Auxiliary (Aux): can, will, do, do, be, havev Conjunction (Conj): and, or, butv Complementizer(C): that, if, for, The criteria on which categories are determined v(textb

16、ook, p. 43-44)vMeaning vInflection vDistribution vFor example,vThe girl ate an Summary of category v 词属于不同的类别；传统语法中称为“词性”(part of speech)或“词类”(word class),生成语法中多称为句法类（syntactic category)或语法类（grammatical category),简称语类(category)v 词可划分为十个语类：名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、限定词、代词、助动词、标记词和连词。v 根据它们是否具有词汇意义、是否属于开放性语类，这些

17、单词语类又可分为两大类：实义语类(content category; contentive）和功能语类(function category; functor)。v 实义语类在句中主要表示词汇意义，基本都属于开放性语类；功能语类主要表示语法功能，都属于封闭类语类。4.3 Phrase categories v4.2.2 Phrase structurev4.3 Phrase structure rule pXP rulepCoordination rulev4.4 Phrase elementspSpecifierspComplementspModifiers v PHRASE is a sin

18、gle element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of The phrase categories v The major types of phrasesv NPv VPv APv PPPhrase structure rulev Please group the following phrases into categories:v those peoplev finish assignmentsv the fish on t

19、he platev always play gamesv on the shelf v very close tov quite near the stationv (textbook, p.45)Phrase structure rulev NP (Det) + N +(PP)v e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.v VP (Qual) + V + (NP)v e.g. always play games, finish assignments.v AP (Deg) + A + (PP)v very handsome

20、, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close tov PP (Deg) + P + (NP)v on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.v (textbook, p.45)vIs there a rule to generalize all the phrase structures?To be more abstract, XP rulev a more abstract but simpler formulas:v XP (specifier) X (complement)vAnyth

21、ing wrong in the following sentences?vWhich phrase rule does each of the following sentences include? v1. Helen put on her clothes, wearing her hat and went out.v2. My mom bought me a red dress and a new bag and a new phone as present.v3. The boy is moving with care the huge stone.v4. I very much li

22、ke Coordination rulev Coordination structures-the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.v E.g., v There are , and v You may have , or v How will XP indicate structures such as:v Apples, oranges and bananas Coor

23、dination 4.4 phrase elements: revised XP rule v How will XP rules describe more complex phrase structures such as:vMy mom bought me a new v Therefore, more revisions of the rule below:Expanded versions of XP rulev 4.4.2 (p.48) How to illustrate phrases with more than one complement? (textbook, p. 47

24、-49)v Send me an emailv Put it on the wallv Complement: The XP rule revisedv XP (specifier) X (complement*)v Complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in EvHow to illustrate a sentence-like complement?Complementizer + complement clausev 4.4.2 How to illustrate a sentence-li

25、ke complement?v E.g.,vI was afraid that nobody would believe me.v Matrix clause CPvCP= Complementizer + complement clause Complementizercomplement 4.4.3 ModifiersvA very charming lady at the car exhibition v (Specifier) (modifier) head (complement)v What is the position of modifiers in the XP rule s

26、tructures?v The expanded XP rule:v XP (specifier)(Mod) X (complement*) (Mod) v A modifier can occur either before or after the head.v Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will occur to the right of the complement as well.v E.g., a careful girl, read carefully, read a bo

27、ok carefullyv open the can with Now, S rulesThe rules governing the formation of sentencesTHE S RULES NP VP4.5 & 4.6vThe structure of Sentences vHow are different sentence patterns produced?vWhat is the difference of the following three sentences?pHenry was happy to hear it.pMary is easy to teac

28、h.pThe clothes are easy to wash.p剩女产生的原因：一是谁都看不上，剩女产生的原因：一是谁都看不上，p二是谁都看不上二是谁都看不上p在屋顶上发现了小王A tree diagram used to label the phrase structurev 树形图最为直观，不仅显示出句子的线性结构(linear relationship)，而且清楚地表明其阶层结构（hierarchical structure）上面讲的这些规则都是通过线上面讲的这些规则都是通过线性的方式实现的。下面将介绍性的方式实现的。下面将介绍生成语法中最常用的直接成分生成语法中最常用的直接成分分析法

29、分析法(IC analysis)，该方法，该方法对短语或句子结构的分析表现对短语或句子结构的分析表现为树形图（为树形图（tree diagram）vThe analysis of sentences can be carried out in ways of IC Analysis (直接成分分析法)v通常通过bracketing (方括号分析法) 和 tree diagrams (树形图）实现。v IC Analysis refers to division of a sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cuttin

30、g until obtaining its ultimate constituents. （把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位又称最终成分。） v Immediate constituents（直接成分）（直接成分）: the two parts that are yielded after a sentence is cut into its constituent elements .v Ultimate constituent （最终成分）（最终成分）: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through the

31、 division, or segmentation or the forms at the word-v 这样的图形像一棵倒立的树，故称为树形图(tree diagram)，文献中常简称为树（tree) ，也叫短语标记(phrase marker)。下面介绍关于树形图的一些基本概念.v 树形图上语类标记所在的点称为节点（node)，连接节点的直线叫树枝（branch)。一个节点向下分成两条或更多条直线叫分杈该节点叫分杈节点（branching node)；只向下延伸出一条直线的节点叫“非分杈节点”，上例中NP,VP,PP是分杈节点,V,P,DET ,N是非分杈节点。v 树形图上节点间的关系常

32、被形象地喻为亲缘关系。分杈节点称为母亲节点(mother node)简称母节；分杈产生的节点是母节的女儿节(daughter node)两个女儿节互为姐妹节（sister nodes)，在上例中，VP向下分杈长出V和NP两个节点， VP是母节， V和NP是VP的两个女儿节，两者又互为姐妹节。反过来，PP又是P和NP的母亲节，P和NP互为姐妹节，是PP的两个女儿。 more examples of IC analysis pThe girl ate the apple (S).pthe+girl (NP)pate+the +apple (VP)p Immediate Constituent An

33、alysis(IC Analysis)v (1) bracketing (The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple)Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)(2)The girl ate the (3) Labeled Tree diagram S NP VPDet N V NP Det NThe girl ate the 4.6 Transformation rulesv Introduction of TG grammarv Deep structure and surface structurev Some transf

34、ormation rules p4.6.1-转换生成语法转换生成语法v Chomsky，1957年提出；年提出；1965年，年，Chomsky将其理论发展为标准理论将其理论发展为标准理论（standard theory, 简称简称ST）v 属形式语言学范畴，依靠演绎、形式、属形式语言学范畴，依靠演绎、形式、符号、公式等与内容相对的手段来分析符号、公式等与内容相对的手段来分析语言。语言。v “转换生成转换生成” 是什么意思？是什么意思？p语法可以生成从未用过的正确语句；语法可以生成从未用过的正确语句；p语法描写涉及两种表达式或结构描语法描写涉及两种表达式或结构描写之间的写之间的 运算和转换。运算

35、和转换。 Chomsky, who has taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology since 1955, developed a theory of transformational grammar that revolutionized the scientific study of language. He first set out his abstract analysis of language in his doctoral dissertation (1955) and Syntactic Structures (

36、1957). Instead of starting with minimal sounds, as the structural linguists had done, Chomsky began with the rudimentary or primitive sentence; from this base he developed his argument that innumerable syntactic combinations can be generated by means of a complex series of rules. Noam ChomskyNoam Ch

37、omsky was born on December 7, 1928 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His undergraduate and graduate years were spent at the University of Pennsylvania where he received his PhD in linguistics in 1955. 转化生成语法v 转换生成语法:它产生于20世纪50年代，由形式语法学家乔姆斯基提出。他认为仅仅描写语法形式是不够的，而要探索隐藏在语法行为背后的人类普遍的“语法能力”，这种语言能力通过一套“深层结构深层结

38、构”向“表层结构表层结构”的转换规则，从而把意义和形式结合起来，把静态描写提高到动态描写。 v 转换生成语法认为，语言是受规则支配的体系，人具有天生的语言习得机制和语言能力。人类使用语言不是靠机械模仿和记忆，而是不断理解、掌握语言规则、举一反三地创造性地运用语言的过程。 句子的产生句子的产生v 语法语法转换部分转换部分表层结构表层结构语音部分语音部分句子的句子的语音语音表现表现v 基础部分基础部分深层结构深层结构语义部分语义部分句子的句子的语义语义表现表现 v 上图是一个转换-生成语法的理论框图。v 语法主要包括基础基础和转换转换两个部分，基础部分生成深层结构，深层结构通过转换得到表层结构，语

39、义部分属于深层结构，它为深层结构作出语义解释。语音部分属于表层结构并为表层结构作出语音解释。 vThe goal of TG grammar is pto find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences.pto provide the rules that can be used to generate grammatical sentences; p to show how bas

40、ic sentences can be transformed into either synonymous phrases or more complex sentences. Deep Structure and Surface StructurevAccording to TG, human beings possess two grammars:(1) a phrase grammar which consists of the rules governing idealized sentence formation;(2) - a transformational grammar,

41、which enables us to manipulate sentences to produce the full range of sentence types.As a consequence, every sentence has a surface structure and a deep Deep structurepThe abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction. - reveals the underlying structure of a linguistic uttera

42、nce and specifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements.pA blueprint for the construction of well-formed sentences. Surface StructurevThe actually produced structurepthe structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receivepthe directly observable

43、actual form of sentences as they are used in communication pA sentence structure resulting from the application of transformational rules. vLook at the following illustration: How is a sentence produced? Surface Structure (Transformation rules) Deep Structure v The representations of these two level

44、s dont have to be different.v When transformations are not necessary, the representations of the two levels look the 4.3. 2 Sentence Transformationv We can generate a large number of sentences with only a small number of rules, i.e., “phrase structure” rules.v Tree-diagram format can describe the tr

45、ansformation process.- a static representation of the structure of the sentence at the bottom of the diagram. - a “dynamic ” format, in the sense that it represents a way of “generating ” not only that one sentence, but a very large number of sentences with similar structuresHow does transformation

46、take place?v Two processes：pEvery transformation is based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. pSubstitution (the deletion and insertion of different elements in the same place) and permutation (the deletion of an element from one place and its insertion in another) are operations derived

47、from deletion and insertion of constituents. How do the following transformations take place?v How are the following structures/sentences produced?v Will the train arrive?v 4.6.1 auxiliary movementv Do birds fly?v 4.6.2 do insertionv What will you talk about?v What languages can you speak?v 4.6.4 wh

48、 movementv A general S rule: Move alpha “”An example of active-passive transformationv The passive transformation deals with the relation between pairs like:(a) The boy saw cats. (b) Cats were seen by the 4.6.1 Aux-movement（助动词移动）v The movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence-initial position,

49、such as be, have, do, will, can, and should. eg. John will buy a present. Will John buy a present?v The Inversion R 4.6.2 Do insertionv Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position eg. Birds fly. Birds do fly. Do birds fly? 4.6.4 WH-movementv WH-movement is obligatory in English, which change

50、s a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. eg. John will buy what. What will John buy? John will put books where Where will John put books?Move and constraints on transformationsv Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position.v No element may be removed from a coordinate Summary of Chapter 4vWord categoriesvPhrase categorie