语言学_Chapter4

1、Chapter 4 SyntaxA4.1 Syntax The definition of syntax Approaches to the study of sentences- The traditional approach- The structural approach- The generative approach- The functional approach4.2 Categories4.2.1 Word-level categories The definition of syntactic categories Two kinds of word-level categ

2、ories- Major lexical categories Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) - Minor lexical categories Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual), Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Complementizer (C)4.2.2Phrase categories and their structures The definition of phrase Phrasal categories

3、- Noun phrase (NP)- Verb phrase (VP)- Adjective phrase (AP)- Prepositional phrase (PP) The elements of phrases- Head- Specifier- Complement4.3 Phrase structure rule The definition of phrase structure rules The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PP- NP (Det) N (PP) .- VP (Qual) V (NP) .- AP (Deg)

4、A (PP) .- PP (Deg) P (NP) .4.3.1 XP rule The XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement)4.3.2 Coordination rule The definition of coordinate structures The coordination rule: X X* Con X4.4 Phrase elements4.4.1 Specifiers4.4.2 ComplementsThe XP Rule (revised) XP (Specifier) X (Complement*) Complementizer

5、Complement clause Complement phrase (CP) Matrix clause4.4.3 ModifiersThe Expended XP rule: XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) 4.5 Sentences (The S Rule)The S rule: S NP VP4.6 Transformations Deep structure (D-structure) and surface structure (S-structure) Some transformation rules- Auxiliary move

6、ment- Do insertion Do insertion rule: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position- Wh movement Wh Movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence Wh movement (revised): Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP- Move and constraints on transformationsIntroduction of a

7、 linguist-Leonard Bloomfiel Leonard Bloomfield (April 1,1887 April 18,1949) was an American linguist who led the development of structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and the 1940s. His influential textbook Language, published in 1933, presented a comprehensive description of A

8、merican structural linguistics. He made significant contributions to Indo-European historical linguistics, the description of Austronesian languages and description of languages of the Algonquian family. Bloomfields approach to linguistics was characterized by its emphasis on the scientific basis of

9、 linguistics, adherence to behaviorism especially in his later work and emphasis on formal procedures for the analysis of linguistic data. The influence of Bloomfieldian structural linguistics declined in the late 1950s and 1960s as the theory of Generative Grammar developed by Noam Chomsky came to

10、predominate.Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of sentence analysis that was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfield and developed further by Rulon Wells. The process reached a full blown strategy for analyzing sentence structure in the early works of Noam Chomsky. The practice

11、is now widespread. Most tree structures employed to represent the syntactic structure of sentences are products of some form of IC-analysis. The process and result of IC-analysis can, however, vary greatly based upon whether one chooses the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars (= const

12、ituency grammars) or the dependency relation of dependency grammars as the underlying principle that organizes constituents into hierarchical structures.IC Analysis refers to division of a sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.Immed

13、iate constituents: the two parts that are yielded after a sentence is cut into its constituent elements .Ultimate constituent: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through the division, or segmentation or the forms at the word-level. B4.1 SyntaxSyntax: a branch of linguistics that studies the rule

14、s that govern the formation of sentences. The traditional approach takes a sentence as a sequence of words. It studies sentence formation by studying words in terms of categories and their interrelationships. The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a struct

15、ure (system), not as isolated bits. This approach to grammar, based on Saussures ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words.The generative approach is mainly referred to transformational-generative grammar proposed by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky proposes that the grammars of all human

16、 languages share a common framework.The functional approach offers an alternative to structuralism (formalism).Systemic-functional approach starts from clause and extends itself to discourse. It involves what language can show (ideational function), what kind of relation can it establish (interperso

17、nal function), and in what way (textual function). 4.2 CategoriesCategory: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic category（句法范畴）：refer to the linguistic forms that

18、 have paradigmatic relations, which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.Word level category can be divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.Major lexical categories(实义语类）：Noun, Verb, Adjective and PrepositionMino

19、r lexical categories(功能语类）：Determiner(Det)限定词: the, a, this, thoseDegree words(Deg)表程度: quite, very, more, soQualifier (Qual)表频率: often, always, seldom, almostAuxiliary (Aux)助动词: can, will, do, do, be, haveConjunction (Conj)连词: and, or, butComplementizer(C)补语化成分: that, if, for, whetherPhrase is a si

20、ngle element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.4.2.2Phrase categories and their structuresPhrasal categories Noun phrase(NP): the pretty girl Verb phrase(VP): often dreamAdjective phrase(AP): very pessimisticPrepositional phras

21、e(PP): mainly aboutPhrases are usually contain the following elements: Head, Specifier and Complement. The word around which a phrase is formed is termed headThe word on the left side of the head is said to function as specifierThe word on the right side of the head is complement.4.3 Phrase structur

22、e rulePhrase structure rule: grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.- NP (Det) N (PP) .- VP (Qual) V (NP) .- AP (Deg) A (PP) .- PP (Deg) P (NP) .NP can consist of a determiner(Det), an N head and a PP complement, for instance: those people, the fish on

23、 the plate, pretty girlsVP can be composed of a qualifier, a V and an NP complement,for instance: always play games, finish assignmentsAP can be composed of a degree word, a A and a PP complementfor instance: very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP can consist of a degree wor

24、d, a P and an NP complement,for instance: on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationThe XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule:Coordination structures-the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, o

25、r, etc.The coordination rule: X X* Con X4.4 Phrase elementsWords which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers ( shortened as Cs)The sentence introduced by the complementizers is called a complement clause.Sentence complement is called complement phrase (shortened as CP)The cons

26、truction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers in English vary in terms of their position with respect to the head.XP (specifier)(Mod) X (complement*) (Mod)The new rule allows a modifier to occur either before or after the head.Where there is a complement, a mo

27、difier that occurs after the head will occur to the right of the complement as well.E.g., a careful girl, read carefully, read a book carefully, open the can with care4.5 Sentences (The S Rule):A sentence combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP.Linguists take an abstract category inflect

28、ion as a sentences head. Inflection takes an NP(the subject) as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.Inflp(=S）：NP + Infl+VPIC Analysis (直接成分分析法): refers to division of a sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.Immediate c

29、onstituents（直接成分）: the two parts that are yielded after a sentence is cut into its constituent elements .Ultimate constituent （最终成分）: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through the division, or segmentation or the forms at the word-level.4.6 TransformationsInversion: move inflection to the left

30、of the subject NP, for instance,The train will arrive-Will the train arrive?Do insertion: insert interrogative do into an empty inflection position,for instance,Birds fly- birds do flyAfter the auxiliary do is inserted into the inflection position,the inversion transformation can be made by moving t

31、he interrogative do into the C position.Birds do fly-Do birds fly?Deep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads subcategorization properties.Surface structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation.CThis chapter is

32、 about Syntax. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. (According to the text book) As for rules, the sequence of words informing the sentences is also an important part of syntax. This book mainly focuses on English syntax. And the sequence o

33、f words in a sentence matters. For example, sentence “ Mike ate the apple. ” and “ The apple ate Mike. ” is very different in their meanings. If we just see the elements of these two sentences, we can find that they are identical in the words part. The only difference between them is the words seque

34、nce. So we can realize how important the sequence of words is. However, it is not always true if we broad our scale to all the languages in the world. For some of the languages, however, the sequence of words is not that important than English. They do have some rules of the sequence of words, but not that serious. Because my second foreign language is German, I thought of it as soon as I encountered this part. And I decide to have a b