期中,英美概况

1、1、1066-Battle of Hastings黑斯廷斯战役The Battle of Hastings was to shape the future of Medieval中世纪英国.However, the battle took place about seven miles from Hastings. Why, then was the Battle of Hastings so-called? In1066, Battle was an important area. Compared to other parts of Sussex, Battle was wealthy.

2、However, the title Battle of Battle would not have worked, and for convenience sake, the nearest large town was selected-Hastings. The battle itself was fought by the current Battle Abbey修道院-however, the main thrust推力of the battle concerned Harold's哈罗德position on Senlac Hill,森拉克山丘a short distanc

3、e from the current abbey. In the 11th Century, the coastline of Sussex was different to that of today. The coast was nearer to Battle than it is today and the only major road that linked Hastings to London went through Battle. If Harold held out at Battle, William would have had great difficulties s

4、ustaining支持his campaign战役.2、 Mag na Carta大宪章The Mag na Carta was signed in June 1215 between the barons男爵and King Johnat Runnymede兰尼米德near Windsor Castle. The Mag na Carta was one of the most important documents of Medieval England.The document was a series of written promises between the king and h

5、is subjects that he would govern England and deal with its people according to the customs of feudal封建law.Mag na Carta was an attempt by the barons to stop a king abusing his power with the people of England suffering. England had for some years owned land in France. The barons had provided the king

6、 with both money and men to defend this territory领土. Traditionally, the king had always consulted the barons before raising taxes and demanding more men for military service. This was all part of the Feudal System.While kings were militarily successful abroad, relations between the kings and the bar

7、ons were good. John was not successful in his military campaigns abroad. His constant demands for more money and men angered the barons. By 1204,John had lost his land in northern France. In response to this, John introduced high taxes without asking the barons. This was against feudal lawand accept

8、ed custom. John made mistakes in other areas as well. He angered the Roman Catholic Church天主教.The pope, angered by John's behaviour, banned all church services in England in 1207.Even worse for John that the pope excommunicated把逐出教会him in 1209.Faced with this, John climbed down and accepted the

9、power of the Catholic Church giving them many privileges in 1214.1214 was a disastrous灾难性的year for John for another reason. Once again, he suffered military defeat in an attempt to get back his territory in northern France. He returned to London demanding more money from taxes. This time the barons

10、were not willing to listen. They rebelled against his power. The barons captured London. However, they did not defeat John entirely and by the spring of 1215, both sides were willing to discuss matters. The result was the Mag na Carta.The document can be divided into sections: The first clauses条款con

11、cern the position of the Catholic Church in England. Those that follow state that John will be less harsh on the barons. Many of the clauses concern England's legal system. Mag na Carta promised laws that were good and fair. It states that everyone shall have access to courts and that costs and

12、money should not be an issue if someone wanted to take a problem to the law courts. It also states that no freeman will be imprisoned or punished without first going through the proper legal system. In future years the word "freeman" was replaced by "no one" to include everybody.

13、 The last few sections deal with how the Mag na Carta would be enforced执行in England. Twenty five barons were given the responsibility of making sure the king carried out what was stated in the Mag na Carta-the document clearly states that they could use force if they felt it was necessary. To give t

14、he Mag na Carta an impact, the royal seal玉玺of King John was put on it to show people that it had his royal support. This is the largest red seal at the bottom of the Mag na Carta above.3、 John Wyclif church reformer约翰威克里夫1320-1384 the Morning Star of the Reformation. John Wycliffe was a Saxon撒克逊人,bo

15、rn in Hips well希普斯威尔,England. He earned degrees at Oxford University and became a doctor of theology神学in 1372.After serving as an envoy使者to France, representing England in a dispute争吵with the Pope, he returned to England and published writings against the secular世俗的power of the Papacy教皇.In spite of

16、attempts by the Church to have Wycliffe arrested and assassinated暗杀,he continued to write and to preach说教.He maintained that no Pope nor council理事会was infallible绝对无错误的,and if their views contradicted反驳the Bible, those views were wrong. He taught that the clergy神职人员should not rule as princes of the c

17、hurch, but should help the people and lead them to Christ. Finally prohibited禁止by the Bishop主教of London from preaching, Wycliffe confined himself to writing and translating the Bible from Latin to English. Thirty-one years after his death, the Church ordered all his books burned, his bones dug up挖出来

18、and burned, and his ashes骨灰scattered on the Thames River4、 Queen Elizabeth I(1558)Tudor queen of England and Ireland, nicknamed' Gloriana'光荣女王and the' Virgin Queen'童贞女王who overcame many challenges and threats at home and from abroad to preside over a perceived' golden age' in

19、 English history. Elizabeth was born in Greenwich on 7 September 1533,the only daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn安娜柏莲.When Elizabeth was two, Anne was beheaded砍头for adultery on the orders of Henry, and Elizabeth was exiled放逐from court. Her childhood was difficult, although she r

20、eceived a thorough Protestant新教的education. In 1553, Elizabeth's older half-sister Mary became queen. Mary was determined to re-establish Catholicism天主教in England and viewed the Protestant Elizabeth as a direct threat, briefly imprisoning her in the Tower of London. When Elizabeth succeeded to th

21、e throne in 1558 one of her priorities was to return England to the Protestant faith and one of her greatest legacies was to establish and secure an English form of Protestantism. Elizabeth's reign统治also saw England significantly expand its trade overseas while at home, Shakespeare, Spenser史宾瑟an

22、d Marlowe马洛were at the forefront of a renaissance in poetry and drama. Catholic challenges and plots策划persisted坚持不懈through much of Elizabeth's reign. The focus of most of these was Elizabeth's cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic with a strong claim to the English throne, who sought exil

23、e in England in 1568.Francis Drake(1580)法兰西斯.德瑞克Drake was an Elizabethan sailor and navigator航海家,and the first Englishman to circumnavigate环航the globe.Francis Drake was born in Tavistock泰维斯托克,Devon德文郡in around 1540 and went to sea at an early age. In 1567,Drake made one of the first English slaving

24、voyages as part of a fleet led by his cousin John Hawkins霍金斯,bringing African slaves to work in the 'New World'. All but two ships of the expedition were lost when attacked by a Spanish squadron中队.The Spanish became a lifelong enemy for Drake and they in turn considered him a pirate海盗.In 157

25、0 and 1571, Drake made two profitable trading voyages to the West Indies. In 1572,he commanded two vessels船舶in a marauding抢劫的expedition against Spanish ports in the Caribbean加勒比海.He saw the Pacific Ocean and captured the port of Nombre de Dios迪奥斯港on the Isthmus of Panama巴拿马地峡.He returned to England

26、with a cargo船货of Spanish treasure and a reputation as a brilliant privateer私掠船船长.In 1577,Drake was secretly commissioned by Elizabeth I to set off on an expedition against the Spanish colonies on the American Pacific coast. He sailed with five ships, but by the time he reached the Pacific Ocean in O

27、ctober 1578 only one was left, Drake's flagship the Pelican派力肯,renamed the Golden Hind金鹿号.To reach the Pacific, Drake became the first Englishman to navigate the Straits of Magellan. He traveled up the west coast of South America, plundering Spanish ports. He continued north, hoping to find a ro

28、ute across to the Atlantic, and sailed further up the west coast of America than any European. Unable to find a passage, he turned south and then in July 1579, west across the Pacific. His travels took him to the Moluccas摩鹿加群岛,Celebes西里伯斯岛,Java爪哇and then round the Cape of Good Hope好望角.He arrived bac

29、k in England in September 1580 with a rich cargo of spices and Spanish treasure and the distinction of being the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. Seven months later, Elizabeth knighted授予爵士him aboard the Golden Hind, to the annoyance of the king of Spain. In 1585,Drake sailed to the West

30、 Indies and the coast of Florida where he sacked洗劫and plundered Spanish cities. On his return voyage, he picked up the unsuccessful colonists of Roanoke罗阿诺克Island off the coast of the Carolinas, which was the first English colony in the New World. In 1587,war with Spain was imminent迫近and Drake enter

31、ed the port of Cadiz卡迪斯and destroyed 30 of the ships the Spanish were assembling装配against the British. In 1588,he was a vice admiral海军中将in the fleet that defeated the Armada. Drake's last expedition, with John Hawkins, was to the West Indies. The Spanish were prepared for him this time, and the

32、venture was a disaster. Drake died on 28 January 1596 of dysentery痢疾off the coast of Portobelo波托韦洛,Panama巴拿马.Hawkins died at the same time, and their bodies were buried at sea.Spanish Armada无敌舰队The Armada was further delayed in 1588 and its 122 ships did not arrive off Land's End until late July

33、. Parma帕尔马,the latest Spanish research has revealed, had given up hope of its arrival and had sent the crews of his own ships to work on canals inland. The English had made two attempts to拦截the Armada in Iberian伊比利亚waters in June and July, only to be blown back by storms. Now somewhat sceptical怀疑the

34、mselves, their fleet of sixty-six ships was caught by surprise re-supplying in Plymouth普利茅斯when the Armada appeared. Although they were able to escape from Plymouth successfully, they were faced with a stern chase尾击up the Channel. Much ammunition军火was expended, but the Spanish formation held togethe

35、r well, and only two ships were lost, both by accidents. The Spanish admiral, the duke of Medina Sidonian美迪纳西多尼亚,then took the unexpected decision to anchor off停泊在Calais卡莱斯on 6 August. This enabled the English to disperse分散his fleet by a fireship attack and strong winds blew it into the North Sea. F

36、our Spanish ships were lost at this point, but the great majority escaped northwards. However, there was now no alternative to the risky voyage home round Scotland and Ireland.The ultimate根本的responsibility for launching the Armada and devising its strategy was Philip. The widespread appreciation tha

37、t he had disregarded不理professional advice did great damage to his reputation within Spain and, although most of the fleet returned safely, the failure of the Armada also shattered打碎the image of the invincibility不可战胜of Spanish arms. There was considerable disappointment in England that so few Spanish

38、 ships were sunk or captured, but the relative efficiency of the English government in the crisis and the queen's public appearance among her troops did much to boost Elizabeth's prestige.A further fifteen years of hostilities敌意lay ahead, but the Anglo盎格鲁-Spanish maritime war now became only

39、 a part of a much wider conflict in which the struggle for France was the vital至关重要theatre. The English made two major landings on the Iberian coast, and the Spaniards a raid突袭on Cornwall康沃尔in 1595 and a landing in Ireland in 1601,but none of these had any decisive决定性的effect. The Anglo-Spanish war w

40、as to all intents a stalemate僵局,for neither side was able to attack the other effectively, but even this result showed that there were limits to Spanish power. On a one to one basis England was clearly much weaker than Spain, but Elizabeth had demonstrated successfully that of all Philip's conte

41、mporaries in Europe she was the most dangerous enemy.5、 The Glorious Revolution1688;English Bill of Rights1689The 1688 Revolution, often referred to as the Glorious Revolution of 1688,ended the reign of James II and ushered迎接in the reign of William III and Mary II.The 1688 Revolution came at the end

42、 of a reign when James II had made it all too clear that he wanted Roman Catholicism天主教reinstalled重新设置as the countrys religion. The chronic dislocation混乱of the English Civil Warwas remembered by many people as was the relative stability of the reign of Charles II.No one was willing to tolerate more

43、years of uncertainty or the possibility of the country being pushed once more into military conflict. The policies of James II had caused much discontent in both Whig辉格党and Tory托利党parties. As a result, leading politicians took it upon themselves to send an Invitation to William of Orange inviting th

44、e Protestant新教徒William to take the throne of the countryalong with his wife Mary who was the daughter of James II and granddaughter of Charles I.William landed at Torbay托陪in Devon in November 1688.James fled to France on December 23rd and in January 1689,William called a parliament议会which passed the

45、 necessary legislation法律that the Revolution required to be successful. The politicians behind the 1688 Revolution saw James II as being the one at fault for destabilizing动摇the constitution宪法as it then stood. Led by Danby丹比,they believed that they were merely taking society back to the time when the

46、social status quo说that they wanted existed and where the Protestant faith was guaranteed.There were those who viewed Mary alone as the legal heir to the throne as she was from Stuartbloodthe daughter of James II and the granddaughter of Charles I. Despite the number of years that had passed, there w

47、ere still those who held Charles in high regard as a monarch. The strict legitimists正统主义者wanted William named as a regent摄政王only. William, a respected Protestant leader from Holland, would not accept this and stated bluntly that he would return to Holland unless he was given full regal powers. The p

48、rospect of a political vacuum真空was not welcomed by anyone. There were some Whigs, though few in number, who believed that the people of the country should have the final say in who should be monarch.The Bill of RightsThe Bill of Rights is an act of the Parliament议会of England,whosetitleis An Act Decl

49、aring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession继承of the Crown. It is often called the English Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was passed by Parliament on 16 December 1689.It was a re-statement in statutory form法定形式of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention P

50、arliament英国代表国会to William and Maryin March 1689,inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. It lays down limits on the powers of sovereign君主and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement to regular elections to Parliament and the right t

51、o petition请愿the monarch without fear of retribution惩罚.It reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law, and condemned宣判死刑the James II of England for "causing several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed缴械at the same time when papists we

52、re both armed and employed contrary to law.These ideas about rights reflected those of the political thinker John Lockeand they quickly became popular in England. It also sets out certain constitutional宪法上的requirements of theta seek the consent of the people, as represented in parliament. Along with

53、 the1701 Act of Settlementthe Bill of Rights is still in effect. It is one of the main constitutional laws governing the successionto the throne andfollowing British殖民主义,the resultant doctrine, and independenceto the thrones of those other Commonwealth英联邦王国,by willing deference to the act as a Briti

54、sh statute or as a patriatedpart of the particular realm's constitution. Since the implementation执行of the Statute in each of the Commonwealth realms, the Bill of Rights cannot be altered改变in any realm except by that realm's own parliament, and then, by convention公约,and as it touches on the s

55、uccession to the shared throne, only with the consent of all the other realms. In the United Kingdom, the Bill of Rights is further accompanied by termagant, Habeas and Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution.A separate but similar document,

56、 the Claim索赔of Right Act,applies in Scotland.The English Bill of Rights 1689 inspired in large part the United States Bill of Rights.6、Scientific Revolution: Galileo, Descartes笛卡尔,Kepler, Bacon, NewtonGalileo was the first man to use a telescope望远镜to observe the stars and planets, and with the infor

57、mation he gained from this(craters on the moon月球上的环形山,moons around Jupiter在木星上的卫星,sunspots太阳黑子),he was able to challenge the outdated view of the universe-which seemed to think that” the heavens” were perfect. Beyond astronomy, Galileo challenged Aristotle's亚里士多德concepts of motion运动,and discover

58、ed the principle of inertia惯性,and his thoughts were later incorporated into Isaac Newton's universal law of gravitation.Descartes is without a doubt the genuine真正的pioneer of the Scientific Revolution in the seventeenth century, which overturned ancient and medieval scientific conceptions in natu

59、ral sciences as well as in mathematics and paved铺就the way for the modern era. Descartes himself was fully aware of his epistemological innovations认识论的创新,the originality独创性of his theories, and the disruption he was bringing to the scholastic vision学术视野of the world and to Scriptural dogmas圣经教条.But he

60、was torn between the proud, absolute certainty of being the bearer送信人of the truth, which spurred鞭策him on to publish, and the fear, if he did publish, of being misunderstood and held in contempt轻视by the established philosophers or worse still, of being branded a heretic异教徒by the theologians, Calvinist加尔文教徒and Catholic alike. Descartes felt threatened.It was