Chapter 9 Gestalt

1、1Gestalt PsychologyOutline 1. The Scene 2. The Main Characters 3. Gestalt Psychology Basic Ideas 4. Gestalt Psychology Origin 5. Principles of Gestalt Psychology 6. Other Phenomena Insight 7. Social Psychology 8. Clinical Psychology2 The scene The early 20th century was a time of change for psycholo

2、gy. The first psychologists were passing from the scene James died in 1910. Wundt retired a few years later. By 1912, Titcheners productivity had gone into serious decline, perhaps because he sensed his increasing isolation within psychology.3 Meanwhile, in Russia, Pavlov was watching dogs salivate.

3、 In Austria, Freud was analyzing the dreams of unhappy, rich women. And in Germany, Wertheimer was watching telephone poles zoom by.45Psychology 1910 - 1920 3 “schools” of psychology opposing Wundts psychology and Titchners structuralism Functionalism objected to the narrowness or structuralism and

4、reductionism Behaviorism rejected study of consciousness for the study of observable behavior Gestalt rejected reductionist approach to psychology maintained an interest in studying the mindThe main characters of Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler. Although later psy

5、chologists were strongly influenced by Gestalt theory, especially in social psychology (e.g., Solomon Asch), there was never really any second generation of Gestalt theorists trained by the originals.6 Max Wertheimer(1880 1943). 1880 Born in Prague, Studied law at the University of Prague interest i

6、n philosophy of law led him to legal testimony, and then to psychology of perception. 1904 Obtained doctorate after one year of study at the University of Wurzburg. Dissertation on lie detection. 1912 Published first paper on Gestalt psychology.7 1921 (with Koffka and Kohler) founded journal Psychol

7、ogical Research, which became the official publication of Gestalt Psychology. (Banned by Nazis in 1938.) 1933 went to New York City to teach at the New School for Social Research, that had just been established largely as a place for refugee European intellectuals.8 Kurt Koffka (1886-1941). Born in

8、Berlin. Educated at the University of Berlin. 1904-05 Studied in Edinburgh to improve English.1909 Doctorate in Psychology. Married Mira Klein. 1910 Began work with Wertheimer and Kohler at the University of Frankfurt. 1911 took job at University of Giessen; remained there until 1924. During WW1, wo

9、rked with brain damaged and aphasic patients at a psychiatric clinic in Geissen.9 Early 1920s Emigrated to the United States. 1922 First paper on Gestalt theory of perception published in US (Psychological Bulletin). 1923 Divorced Mira Klein, married Elizabeth Ahlgrimm. Later in 1923 Divorced Elizab

10、eth Ahlgrimm and remarried Mira Klein! 1924-25 Career stunted in Germany; Visiting professor at Cornell University.10 1926-27 University of Wisconsin 1927 Given research position (and funds) at Smith College. 1928 Divorced Mira Klein and remarried Elizabeth Ahlgrimm! 1935 Published Principles of Ges

11、talt Psychology 1941 Died.11 Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), born in Tallinn, Estonia (raised in northern Germany) 1909 Doctorate from University of Berlin. 1913 Went to Anthropoid Research Station, Canary Islands, to study chimpanzees. Stranded there during WWI, stayed for 7 years. 1917 Published “Men

12、tality of Apes” (in German). 1920 Returned to Berlin, succeeded Carl Stumpf as Professor of Psychology at the University of Berlin.12 1929 Published Gestalt Psychology, his first book in English. 1935 Fled Nazi Germany; to the United States, took job at Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania. Stayed the

13、re till 1955. 1956 istinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the APA. 1959 Elected president of the APA13Gestalt Psychology Basic ideas In reporting a list of stimulus features, you cannot express or predict what the “whole” would be that these features produce when combined. * The stimulus ar

14、ray is not the only thing that matters the human nervous system matters, too. It brings something to the act of perception. * The whole is more than the sum of the parts.1415Beginning of Gestalt psychology 1910 Max Wertheimer on vacation noticed that distal objects seemed to move with the train; nea

15、rby objects went past. Why? Study of apparent motion why stationary objects appear to move Began to study this phenomena with two former students of Karl Stumpf Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler16Apparent motion Phi phenomenon flashing a vertical light that is followed 50-60 msec later by a horizontal

16、 light produces the appearance of movement. The light appears to move from vertical to horizontal Movement only perceived if delay was 50 60 msec The perceptual experience had properties the individual components did not 1st Gestalt paper presented in 191217Basic premise of Gestalt psychology Humans

17、 are not passive receivers of sensory information. Our perceptions are active, lively, and organized We actively organize perceptions into coherent wholes today the process is referred to as top-down or conceptually driven processing18Criticisms of Wundt and Titchner Wundt was studying sensory exper

18、iences “from below” instead of “from above”. How we organize information more important than the individual sensory elements Titchner had his methodology backwards. Titchner: the subjects task is to explain their sensory experience, not the objects being experienced (Introspection) Wertheimer: the o

19、bservers task is to describe the object being experienced, not describe the experience19The Gestalt team Wertheimer: the teacher and lecturer who influenced students and colleagues through seminars and discussions Koffka: the writer and theorist he produced the basic principles of Gestalt psychology

20、 in 1935 Principles of Gestalt Psychology Kohler the debater he enjoyed debating and criticizing the behaviorists and structuralists. Only one of the 3 elected president of the APA20Lack of a Gestalt psychology today They spent the majority of their time criticizing others instead of consolidating i

21、deas into practical and testable theories Described how perceptual processes work, rather that theorizing how they worked Others took Gestalt ideas and incorporated them into their own theories Gestalt psychology most important from 1915 to the 1940s mostly in Germany21Gestalt principles of perceptu

22、al organization Similarity Proximity Good form and common fate Closure Law of PragnanzGestalt laws of grouping Continuity Proximity Similarity ClosureGestalt Perceptual Constancies Size, shape, brightness of objects constantly change with angle, distance, lighting - yet we perceive objects as having

23、 constant qualities Not a result of learning, but inherent in the nature of objects in the worldShape constancyDoors image, as captured by the retina of your eye, is NOT rectangular - yet we see the door as a rectangle even as it opens and closes.Gestalt view of learning Kohlers studies of insight s

24、howed that trial and error can occur mentally, without having to perform physical trial and error Idea of insight is certainly applicable to human learning as well, as when we solve a problem more effectively after taking a break from it26Geographical versus behavioral environment Geographical envir

25、onment the physical world Behavioral environment our interpretation of the physical world Our interpretation of organization can produce a behavioral world that is very different from the physical world27Importance of perceptual constancy Our perception of an object will remain the same even if the

26、sensory experience changes includes shape, size, brightness, and color constancy Kohlers explanation: when we attend to an object we also attend to its relationship with other objects in the visual display. If the relationship between the object and other objects remains the same, the object is perc

27、eived as remaining the same28Insightful learning - Kohler Kohler went of Canary Islands to study intelligence and problem solving ability of great apes in 1913. WWI began and he was unable to leave until 1917 Conducted most of his studies on insightful learning during this period29Studies of Insight

28、ful Learning Prevailing theory at the time Thorndikes Law of Effect trial and error and reward Kohler animals have reasoning ability and are not dependent on trial and error Kohlers detour problem tested dogs, children, and chickens30Studies of problem solving of apes More complex and required highe

29、r problem solving, but basic paradigm the same: the direct approach would not solve the problem the apes had to find an indirect way to the goal. 1st study: Bananas hung from ceiling out of the reach of the apes. Bananas swung back and forth. If the animal climbed a nearby scaffolding, the bananas w

30、ould swing in to their reach Apes first jumped and failed, then looked around, went to the scaffolding and climbed up31Mentality of Apes (1921; 1928) 3 characteristics of insightful learning: Insightful learning solutions result from restructuring the problem the ah ha! The fruit that was provided s

31、erved as an incentive, but was not responsible for learning. The animal solved the problem before they ate the fruit Insightful solutions are characterized by generalizations or large amounts of positive transfer from one problem to another32Americanization of Gestalt psychology 1925 Kohler came to

32、U.S. as a visiting professor at Clark University Traveled and spoke all over the U.S. except for the south Why? 1925 was the year of the Scopes Monkey Trial, and it was felt his study of reasoning apes would cause problems 33Americanization of gestalt psychology Rise of Nazis in Germany forced many

33、Jews to leave academic positions Koffka left in 1927 before he was dismissed and expelled from Germany Wertheimer expelled in 1933 Kohler, who was not Jewish, tried to leave in 1934, but wasnt allowed to leave until 1940 By the 1940s, Gestalt psychology had become a recognized part of American psych

34、ology34The 4th Gestalt psychologist Kurt Lewin Only one of the 4 who participated in WWI younger than the others 1st studies our perceptions of landscapes are different depending upon the situation Industrial psychology evaluation of the work environment needed to include job satisfaction, not just level of production35Kurt Lewin Forced out of Germany 1933 injustice of his persecution greatly affected his psychological work 1930s pioneered work on democratic and authoritarian leadership and their effect on members of a group Field theory of psychology Assisted in the U.S. war effort wi