《语言学教程》PowerPoint 演示文稿

1、1第 5-7 讲第 5 章 语义学 （Meaning / Semantics）23语言中的层次（Stratification） 4基本概念基本概念nWhat is Semantics?nThe branch of linguistics concerning the study of meaning is called Semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. 55.1 Meaning of

2、 “MEANING”“意义意义”的意义的意义6n研究意义的第一个问题就是如何定义“意义”这个研究对象。nOgden和Richards在The Meaning of Meaning (1923)一书中列出了“意义”这个词的16个大类，22个小类的含义，这加深了人们对该词的理解。 nGeoffrey Leech 在Semantics (1974)一书中，提出了7种意义：见下图7895.2 The Referential Theory 指称理论指称理论10n基本概念nThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the th

3、ing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory.n指称理论：把一个词的意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的意义理论。11n 通过指明某个词所代表或指称的事物来解释该词的意义，一般是可能的。 这种意义理论在解释专有名词（proper noun）或限定性名词短语（definite noun phrase）时尤其有效。例如，当我们说“The most influential linguist Noam Chomsky teaches at MIT.”时，我们是用“The most influential ling

4、uist ”和“Noam Chomsky ”来指称一个具体的人，而用“ MIT ”来指称一所具体的高等教育机构。1213指称理论的缺陷指称理论的缺陷n 指称理论的一个问题是，当我们指着实物，即一张具体的、实实在在的书桌来解释什么是desk时，我们并不是说书桌必须具有此时此地这张书桌所具有的尺寸、形状、颜色和材料。我们只是把这种书桌当做一个实例，即代表某种更普遍的东西的一个实例。也就是说，在我们肉眼所见的实物之外还存在着某种东西。这种东西是抽象的，没有物质存在，只能通过我们的思维来感知。这种抽象之物就是一般所说的“概念”（CONCEPT）。 1415n（在指称理论的基础上）（在指称理论的基础上）

5、nOgden和Richards在The Meaning of Meaning一书中提出了“语义三角理论” (the semantic triangle) ，明确使用了“概念”这一术语。他们认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接的关系。它们是以概念为中介的。这种关系可以用如下图表示：n n 图表见本书P 961617n 如果把这种观点与上一节提到的解释词义的四种方式相联系，我们会发现第一种，即指着所指的事物来解释词义的方式，符合那种认为词与所指事物之间存在着直接关系的理论；而上一节提到的第二种释义方式符合本节所讲的“间接关系论”。当我们说 desk 是a piece of furniture with

6、a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes时，我们实际上是借助了书桌的概念，或者说是概括了书桌的主要特征和基本属性。而第三、四种释义方式甚至更为间接，因为引入了另一个词table 或“书桌”的概念。1819术语注解术语注解nDenotation外延 shows the relation between a word and whatever object it is used to refer to, e.g. bull denotes(指称)a class of animals; brown denotes a proper

7、ty of individuals or objects. nReference指称 shows the relation between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.nConnotation内涵 means the properties of the entity that a word denotes. 词语所指称的实体所具有的性质。20n G. Leech用“涵义”（“SENSE”）这个术语作为他所提出的“概念意义”的简称。这样做是有道理的，因为作为一个专业术语，“涵义”可以像哲学中的“内涵”那样使用。它可以指一个实体所具有

8、的属性。在这一点上，“涵义”(sense)和“概念”(concept)是等价的。当把desk定义为a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes时，这可以看作desk的涵义。所以，“涵义”和“指称”的区别就类似于“内涵” 和“外延”的区别。前者指一个实体的抽21n象属性，而后者是指具有这些属性的具体实体。 换句话说，Leech 所说的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。n 然而，“涵义”和“指称”之间还有其他不同。某种程度上，我们可以说每个词都有涵义，即概念内容，否则我们就无法使用

9、或理解这个词。 但是，并不是每个词都有指称。语法词but, if, and 并不指称任何实物。“上帝”、“鬼魂”、“龙”等所指的只是想象中的事物，现实中并不存在。 22n而且，用词的所指事物来解释词很不方便。因为词所指的对象并不总在说话人的身边。就算是在身边，也需要听者花时间来辨认其主要特征。例如，一个人第一次见到电脑时，可能会误认为显示器是其主要部件，认为电脑就像电视机一样。因此，有人提出应该根据涵义而非指称来研究意义。n注： 句是 5.2 的最终结论：要将对意义的研究限制在语言的范围内，而不诉诸于语言之外的世界。n这是结构主义语言学的基本立场。235.3 Sense Relations 涵

10、义关系涵义关系242526n中文学名：智人n拉丁学名：homo sapiensn界：动物界n门：脊索动物门n纲：哺乳纲n目：灵长目n亚目：人猿亚目n科：人科n属：人属n种：智人n分布区域：全球几乎所有陆地27n中文学名：老虎 n拉丁学名：tiger n二名法：老虎 n界：动物界n门：脊索动物n亚门：脊椎动物n纲：哺乳动物n亚纲：兽 n目：食肉 n亚目：猫型 n科：猫科n亚种：8个 n分布区域：亚欧非美28nWords are in different sense relations with each other. n词与词之间通过不同的涵义关系联系在一起。 29nThe sense of a

11、 word may be seen as the network of its sense relations with others. In other words, sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations. n一个词的涵义可以看作是由它和其他词之间的涵义关系所

12、构成的网络。也就是说，涵义可以定义为词之间的语义关系；更概括地说，是语言单位之间的语义关系。涵义关注的是语言内的关系。 30nReference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to. It is concerned with the extra-linguistic relations. n指称关注的是词和所指事物之

13、间的关系；更广泛地说，是语言单位和它所指称的非语言实体之间的关系。指称关注的是语言外的关系。 n 31nThere are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, n一般来说，公认的涵义关系有三种nsameness relation 相同关系noppositeness relation 对立关系ninclusiveness relation. 内包关系n结构主义语义学（structural semantics）32n5.3.1 Synonymy同义关系n定义定义: Synonymy is the technica

14、l name for the sameness relation in meaning. nEnglish is said to be rich in synonyms. Its vocabulary has two main sources: Anglo-Saxon and Latin. There are many pairs of words of these two sources which mean the same, e.g. buy and purchase, world and universe, brotherly and fraternal.33n But total s

15、ynonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all context dependent. They all differ in one way or another. They may differ in style文体. They may differ in connotations蕴含意义 . Thirdly, there are dialectal differences方言差异. n注：可参见陈宏薇著新编汉英翻译教程第49页34n5.3.2 Antonymy反义关系n Antonymy is the technical name for th

16、e oppositeness relation in meaning. There are three main sub-types: ngradable antonymy （等级反义关系）ncomplementary antonymy（互补反义关系）nconverse antonymy （反向反义关系）. 35（1）Gradable antonymy等级反义关系 n This is the commonest type of antonymy. When we say two words are antonyms, we usually mean pairs of words like go

17、od: bad, long: short, big: small. As the examples show, they are mainly adjectives. And they have three characteristics.36nFirst, they are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. They can be modified by “ver

18、y”. And they may have comparative and superlative degrees. Sometimes the intermediate degrees may be lexicalized. They may be expressed by separate words rather than by adding modifiers. n首先，等级反义词是分等级的。也就是说，每对等级反义词的成员在程度上有差异。 对一方的否定未必就是对另一方的肯定。 它们可以受到“ very（很）”修饰。 可能有比较级和最高级 。 有时，居间的程度可能被词汇化。人们可以用不同

19、的词来表达，而不是在给原级填加修饰语。 37nSecond, antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms. There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something is good or bad, long or short, big or small. The criterion varies with the object described.n第二，这种类型的反义词分等级时依据不同的标准。 没有绝对的标准可用来判断某物是好还是坏、是长还是短、是大还是小。标

20、准随描写对象而改变。nThird, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. n第三，在这样的一对反义词中，那个表示较高程度的单词通常可以用作覆盖整个量级的术语。 38nTechnically, the cover term is called “unmarked”, i.e. usual; and the covered term “marked”, or unusual. That means, in general, it is the cover ter

21、m that is more often used. If the covered term is used, then it suggests that there is something odd, unusual here. n从专业的角度看，覆盖词是“无标记的”，即一般的、常用的；被覆盖的词则是“有标记的”，即不同寻常的、很少用的。这意味着，覆盖词总体上更常用。如果使用了被覆盖的词，那就是表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况发生。 n这里是用标记理论阐述覆盖词与被覆盖词39n(2) Complementary Antonymy互补反义关系nIn contrast to the first t

22、ype, the members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.n与等级反义关系不同，互补反义关系中的成员彼此互补。它们把一个语义领域完全分开。对一方的

23、肯定意味着对另一方的否定，对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。 40nThere is no intermediate ground between the two. n两者之间没有中间地带。nIt is a question of two term choice: yes or no; not a multiple choice, a choice between more or less. n这是一个二选一，而非多选一的问题。41n The adjectives in this type cannot be modified by “very”. n 这种类型的形容词不能受“ very（很

24、）”修饰。n And they do not have comparative or superlative degrees either.n 它们也没有比较级和最高级形式。 42n互补反义互补反义与与等级反义等级反义之间的不同之间的不同nTo some extent, this difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary and the contradictory. In log

25、ic, a proposition is the contrary of another if both cannot be true, though they may both be false. And a proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, or false. n在某种程度上，等级和互补两种反义关系之间的不同类类似于似于传统逻辑学中对反对命题和矛盾命题的区分。逻辑上，如果两个命题不能同时为真，但是可以同时为假，则一个是另一个的反对命题。如果两个命题既不能同

26、时为真，也不能同时为假，则一个是另一个的矛盾命题。43nSecondly, the norm in this type is absolute.It does not vary with the thing a word is applied to. The same norm is used for all the things it is applicable to. n第二，互补反义关系所依据的标准是绝对的。不会随着词所指事物的不同而改变。它所适用的所有事物都遵循同一标准。 nThirdly, there is no cover term for the two members of a

27、 pair. No adjective in this type can be modified by how. This is related to the fact that they are not modifiable by words like very.n第三，互补反义关系中的一对成员没有一个共同的覆盖词。这类形容词不能受how修饰。这与它们不能受very一类词修饰相关。 444546n (3) Converse Antonymy反向反义关系nThis is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do no

28、t constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. It is the same relationship seen from two different angles.n反向反义关系是一种特殊类型的反义关系，因为各成员并不构成肯定与否定的对立。只是表现两个实体间的一种反向关系。这是从两个不同角度来看的同一种关系。 47nThis type of antonymy is typically seen in reciprocal so

29、cial roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. It is in this sense that they are also known as Relational Opposites 关系对立.n反向反义关系典型地体现在相对的社会角色、亲属关系、时间和空间关系等方面。从这种意义来说，它也叫做关系对立。 48n 反向反义与前两种反义之间的不同反向反义与前两种反义之间的不同nThere are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other.This is

30、 the major difference between this type and the previous two.n反向反义关系总是涉及两个实体。其中一方预设了另一方。这是它和前两种反义关系的主要区别。49nWith gradable, or complementary, antonyms, one can say “X is good”, or “X is male”, without presupposing Y. It is, as it were, a matter of X only, which has nothing to do with Y. But with conv

31、erse antonyms, there are always two sides. n对于等级反义词或互补反义词来说，我们可以说“X is good（X很好）”，或“X is male（X是男性）”；它并不预设Y。它只是X自己的事情，与Y无关。但是，对于反向反义词而言，总是要有两方存在。 50n 5.3.3 Hyponymy 上下义关系上下义关系nThe notion of meaning inclusiveness意义内包关系 is not new. In other words, hyponymy is a matter of class membership类和成员之间的关系. The

32、 upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name类名, is called Superordinate上义词 , and the lower terms, the members, Hyponyms下义词. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. These members of the same class are Co-hyponyms 同级下义词.51nSometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself. na

33、uto-hyponym 自我下义词nA superordinate may be missing sometimes. nHyponyms may also be missing. 52关于关于“涵义关系涵义关系”的总结的总结n1. 从语言成分之间的相互关系的角度来解释语言成分的意义和功能，这是结构主义语言学（含句法学和语义学在内）的基本观点。n2. “涵义关系”的理论体现了这个最基本的观点。53n刑法第23条第1款规定：“已经着手实行犯罪，由于犯罪分子意志以外的原因而未得逞的，是犯罪未遂犯罪未遂。” 犯罪未遂具备三个特征：1、已经着手实行犯罪；2、犯罪未得逞；3、犯罪未得逞是由于犯罪分子意志

34、以外的原因。n刑法第24条第1款规定：“在犯罪过程中，自动中止犯罪或自动有效地防止犯罪发生的，是犯罪中止犯罪中止。” 构成犯罪中止，必须具备三个条件：1、必须在犯罪过程中停止犯罪 ；2、必须自动地放弃犯罪或自动地防止犯罪结果发生；3、必须彻底地停止犯罪或自动有效地防止犯罪结果的发生 。 n刑法理论认为，犯罪未遂与犯罪中止的主要区别在于：犯罪未完成是否由于犯罪人意志以外的原因。由于犯罪人意志以外的原因而使犯罪未完成的是犯罪未遂犯罪未遂，不属于犯罪人意志以外的原因而未着手实行犯罪或未得逞的是犯罪中犯罪中止止。n“能达目的而不欲能达目的而不欲”时，为犯罪中止犯罪中止；“欲达目的而不能欲达目的而不能”

35、时，为犯罪未遂犯罪未遂。 54身份证号码中的“秘密”55565.4 Componential Analysis成分分析法成分分析法57注释nanalys(z)e. v .to examine the nature or structure of sth, especially by separating it into its parts, in order to understand or explain it. n分析分析：就是将研究对象的整体分为各个部分、方面、因素和层次，并分别地加以考察的认识活动。n分析化学分析化学：一门研究物质的组成、含量、结构和形态等化学信息的分析方法及理论的科学

36、，是化学的一个重要分支。 58承上启下段承上启下段n In the discussion so far, we have been treating meaning as a property of the word, in line with the traditional approach（路径）. In what follows we shall introduce some modern approaches to the study of meaning. And this section is devoted to a discussion of meaning in terms

37、of units smaller than the word meaning, while the next section will be concerned with the meaning of a unit larger than the word, namely, the sentence. 59n成分分析法，又叫语义特征分析法(semantic feature analysis)，是语义分析方法的一种，是伴随着结构主义在语言研究中的应用和发展而出现的。n这一方法的目的是借鉴音位学中的区别性特征分析法，来研究各种语言中具有亲属关系的词。n最早提出成分分析法的是丹麦语言学家叶尔姆斯列夫

38、，他受索绪尔的结构主义思想的影响，认为和语音层面一样，语义表达也可以进行结构分析，并在20世纪40年代提出了具体想法。60n语义成分分析的主要目的是希望找到一组数目有限的语义成分（也叫语义特征, semantic feature）来分析人类语言的语义(Leech，1981)。n语义成分分析法就是“从一组意义相关的词语中抽取其共同特征，以确定词义的做法；这些共同特征被称为语义成分、语义特征 ”。 61定义定义nComponential analysis, also called semantic feature analysis or semantic component analysis, r

39、efers to the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of semantic features or components. nComponential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which analyzes the structure of a words meaning. 62成分分析法的理论基础成分分析法的理论基础nOn the analogy of distinctive features in phonology,

40、 some linguists suggest that there are Semantic Features 语义特征, or Semantic Components 语义成分 . nThat is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. 6364n每一个音位都可以看作是它所具有的全部区

41、别性特征的总和。n每一个词的意义都可以看作是它所具有的全部语义特征或语义成分的总和。65n To be economical, we can combine together some semantic components. The components YOUNG and ADULT may be combined together as ADULT, with YOUNG represented as ADULT; MALE and FEMALE may be combined together as MALE, with FEMALE represented as MALE. 66n英

42、语：father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)n汉语：父亲=父母（x,y）& 男性（x）n读作： x是y的父（母），并且 x是男性。n英语：mother = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)n汉语：母亲=父母（x,y）& 男性（x）n读作：x是y的父（母），并且 x非男。67n英语: son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)n汉语：儿子=孩子（x, y）&男性（x）n读作： x是y的孩子，并且 x是男性。n英语: daughter = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)n汉语：女儿=孩子（x, y）& 男性（x）n读作： x

43、是y的孩子，并且 x 非男。68nVerbs can also be analyzed in this way, for example,n英语：take = CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y) ) ) n汉语：取=致使（x, （拥有（x, y）n英语： give = CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)n汉语：给=致使（x, （拥有（x, y）69n英语：die = BECOME (x, ( ALIVE (x) ) )n汉语：死=变得（x, （ 活着的（x）n英语： kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (ALIVE (y)n汉语：杀死=致使（x, 变得

44、（y, （活着的（y）70n英语： murder = INTEND (x, ( CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (ALIVE (y)n汉语：谋杀=故意（x，（致使（x, （变得（y, （活着的（y）71 用成分分析法解释三种涵义关系用成分分析法解释三种涵义关系nIt is claimed that by showing the semantic components of a word in this way, we may better account for sense relations. nTwo words, or two expressions, which have

45、the same semantic components, will be synonymous with each other. nWords which have a contrasting component, on the other hand, are antonyms. nWords which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms of the latter. 72n These semantic components will also explain sense relations between s

46、entences. For example, (a), (b) and (c) are all self-contradictory, as there are words, or expressions, which have contradictory semantic components in them.73nA more important sense relation between sentences is entailment蕴含关系. nEx. 5-2, 3 and 4.n2. a. John killed Bill.n b. Bill died.n3. a. I saw a

47、 boy. n b. I saw a child.n4. a. John is a bachelor.n b. John is unmarried. 74nThe member sentences of each pair are in such a relationship that the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first sentence, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the se

48、cond. n上述每个例子中的两句之间有如下关系：na真，则b必真；b假，则a也假。nIn terms of semantic components, we can say that it is because (a) sentences contain words which have all the semantic components of a word used in (b) sentences.75定义定义nIn linguistics, entailment is the relationship between two sentences where the truth of

49、one (A) requires the truth of the other (B).nFor example, the sentence (A) The president was assassinated. entails (B) The president is dead. Notice also that if (B) is false, then (A) must necessarily be false. To show entailment, we must show that (A) true forces (B) to be true and (B) false force

50、s (A) to be false.76成分分析法的缺陷和不足成分分析法的缺陷和不足nNow there are also difficulties in the approach to analyze the meaning of a word in terms of semantic components. nOne difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning, consequently they will have different sets of semantic comp

51、onents.n nSecondly, some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies. MALE and FEMALE is one, and ADULT and YOUNG is another. But as we have learnt in the discussion of antonymy above, the opposition between MALE and FEMALE is different from that between ADULT and YOUNG. The 77nformer is absol

52、ute while the latter is relative. In English, though both boy and girl are marked as YOUNG or ADULT, the distinction between boy and man is very different from that between girl and woman. Very often, the former distinction is relatively clear-cut while the latter is rather vague. There is a conside

53、rable overlap between girl and woman. A female person may often be referred to by both.78nThirdly, the examples we have seen are only concerned with the neatly organized parts of the vocabulary. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. Then there is the question of wh

54、ether they are really universal, whether the vocabulary of every language may be analyzed in this way. And even if the answers to these questions are all positive, there is still the question of how to explain the semantic components themselves. 79nAs it stands, semantic components like HUMAN, ADULT, MALE are not ordinary words of English; they belong to a META-LANGUAGE, a language used for talking about another language. The attempt to explain the meaning of man in terms of these components is simply a translation from English to the meta-language.