冷链物流外文文献

1、附录 AThe Cold Chain and its LogisticsAuthors: Dr. Jean-PaulRodriguez and Dr. Theo Notteboom1. OverviewWhile Globalization has madethe relative distancebetween regionsof the world much smaller, the physical separationof thesesame regionsis still a very important reality. The greaterthe physical separa

2、tion,the more likely freight can be damagedin one of the complex transportoperationsinvolved. Some goodscan be damagedby shocks while otherscan be damagedby unduetemperaturevariations. For a rangeof goods labeledasperishables, particularly food, their quality degrades withtime sincethey maintain che

3、mical reactions which rate can be mostly mitigated with lower temperatures.It takestime and coordination to efficiently move a shipment and everydelay can havenegativeconsequences,notably if this cargo is perishable. To ensure thatcargodoesnot become damagedor compromised throughout this process,bus

4、inessesin the pharmaceutical,medical andfood industriesare increasingly relying on the cold chain technology.The cold chain refers to thetransportationof temperaturesensitiveproducts alonga supply chain through thermal and refrigeratedpackaging methods andthe logistical planning to protect the integ

5、rity of theseshipments.Specialization hasled many companiesto not only rely on major shipping serviceproviders suchas the United ParcelService (UPS) and FEDEX, but also more focused industry specialiststhat havedevelopeda nichelogistical expertisearoundthe shipping of temperature sensitiveproducts.

6、Thepotential to understandlocal rules, customsand environmental conditions as well asanestimation of the length andtime of a distribution route make theman important factor in global trade. As a result, the logistics industry is experiencinga growing level of specialization and segmentationof cold c

7、hain shipping in severalpotential niche marketswithin global commodity chains. Whole new segmentsof the distribution industry havebeenvery active in taking advantageof the dual developmentof the spatial extensionofsupply chainssupported by globalization and the significant variety of goodsin circula

8、tion. From an economic developmentperspective,thecold chain enablesmany developing countries to take part in theglobal perishableproducts market. From a geographical perspective,the cold chain has thefollowing impacts:Global. Specialization of agricultural functions permitting the transportof temper

9、ature sensitivefood products to distantmarkets. Enablesthe distribution of vaccinesand other pharmaceuticalor biological products.Regional. Can support the specializationof functions andeconomiesof scale, such as specializedlaboratories.Local. Timely distribution to the final consumer, namely grocer

10、y storesand restaurants.2. Emergenceof Cold Chain LogisticsWhile global commodity chains arefairly modern expansionsin the transportation industry, the refrigerated movement of temperaturesensitive goodsis a practice that datesback to 1797 when British fishermen usednatural ice to preservetheir fish

11、 stock piles. This processwas alsoseenin the late 1800s for the movementof food from rural areasto urban consumption markets,namely dairy products. Cold storage wasalso a key component of food trade betweencolonial powersand their colonies. For example, in the late 1870s andearly 1880s, France was s

12、tarting to receivelarge shipmentsof frozen meatand mutton carcassesfrom South America, while Great Britain imported frozen beef from Australia and pork andother meat from New Zealand. By 1910, 600,000 tonsof frozen meat wasbeing brought into Great Britain alone. Thefirst reefer ship for the bananatr

13、ade wasintroduced in 1903 by the United Food Company. This enabledthe bananato move from anexotic fruit that hada small market becauseit arrived in markets too ripe, to one of the worlds most consumedfruit.The temperaturecontrolled movement of pharmaceuticalsand medical supplies is a much more moder

14、n transit option than the shipping of refrigerated or frozen food. Sincethe 1950s, logistical third party companiesbeganto emergeand institute new methodsfor successfully transportingthese globalcommodities. Before their emergence,cold chain processeswere mostly managedin houseby the manufacturer. I

15、n the United States,Food and Drug Administration restrictions and accountability measures overthe stability of the cold chainincited many of thesecompaniesto rely on specialtycouriers ratherthan completely overhauling their supply chain facilities. A specialized industry was thusborn. The value of t

16、he cold chain in the preservation of expensivevaccinesand medical supplieswas only beginning to be recognizedwhen these logistical providers startedto appear.As awareness beganto grow, so didthe need for efficient managementof the cold chain.The reliance on thecold chain continuesto gain importance.

17、 Within the pharmaceutical industry for instance,the testing, production and movement of drugs relies heavily on controlled and uncompromised transfer of shipments. A largeportion of the pharmaceutical productsthat move alongthe cold chain are inthe experimentor developmentalphase. Clinical research

18、andtrials is a major part of the industry that costsmillions of dollars, but onethat also experiences afailure rate of around80%. According to the Healthcare Distribution Management Association,of the closeto 200 billion dollars in pharmaceutical distribution, about 10% aredrugs that are temperature

19、sensitive. This makes the cold chain responsiblefor transporting anear20 billion dollar investment. If these shipmentsshould experienceany unanticipated exposureto variant temperaturelevels, they run the risk of becoming ineffective or even harmful to patients.Temperaturecontrol in the shipment of f

20、oodstuffs is a componentof the industry that has continued to rise in necessitywith international trade. As a growing number of countries focus their export economy around food and produceproduction, the need to keeptheseproducts fresh for extendedperiodsof time hasgained in importance.Increasing in

21、come levels createa changein diet with amongst othersa growing appetitefor fresh fruit andhigher value foodstuffs such as meatand fish. Personswith higher socioeconomicstatus andwith more economic meansare more likely to consumevegetablesandfruit, particularly fresh, not only in higher quantities bu

22、t also in greatervariety. Consumerswith increasing purchasepower have becomepreoccupied with healthy eating, thereforeproducersand retailers have responded with an arrayof exotic fresh fruits originating from around the world.Any major grocery store aroundthe world is likely to carry tangerinesfrom

23、South Africa, applesfrom New Zealand, bananasfrom Costa Rica and asparagusfrom Mexico. Thus, a cold chain industry has emerged toservice these commodity chains.In 2002, an estimated1200 billion dollars worth of food was transportedby a fleet of 400,000 refrigeratedcontainers (Reefers).Alone, the Uni

24、ted Statesimports about 30% of its fruits and vegetablesand 20% ofits food exportscan be consideredperishables.The uncompromisedquality and safetyof this food is often takenfor granted, despitebeing the main reasonbehind theability to sell the food. The cold chain servesthe function of keeping food

25、fresh for extendedperiods and eliminating doubts overthe quality of the food products. In all the supply chainsit is concernedwith, cold chain logistics favor higher levels of integration since maintaining temperatureintegrity requiresa higher level of control of all the processesinvolved. It may ev

26、enincite third party logistics providers to acquireelementsof the supply chain where time andother performance factors are the mostimportant, even farming. This may involve the acquisition of produce farms (e.g. oranges)to insure supplyreliability.3. Providing TemperatureControlled EnvironmentsThe s

27、uccessof industriesthat rely on the cold chain comesdown to knowing how to ship a product with temperaturecontrol adaptedto the shipping circumstances.Different products require different temperaturelevel maintenanceto ensuretheir integrity throughout the travel process.For instance,the most common

28、temperaturestandardsare banana (13 C), chill (2 C), frozen (-18 C)anddeep frozen (-29 C). Staying within this temperatureis vital to the integrity of a shipmentalong thesupply chain and for perishablesit enablesto insure and optimal shelf life. Any divergencecan result in irrevocable and expensiveda

29、mage; a product cansimply lose any market or useful value.Being able to ensurethat a shipment will remain within a temperaturerangefor an extendedperiod of time comes downlargely to the type of container that is usedandthe refrigeration method. Factorssuch as durationof transit, thesize of the shipm

30、ent and the ambientor outside temperaturesexperiencedareimportant in deciding what type of packagingis required. They can rangefrom small insulated boxesthat require dry ice or gel packs,rolling containers,to a53 footer reefer which has its own poweredrefrigeration unit. The major cold chain technol

31、ogiesinvolve:Dry ice. Solid carbondioxide, is about -80 C and is capableof keeping a shipment frozen for an extendedperiod of time. It is particularly used forthe shipping of pharmaceuticals,dangerousgoodsand foodstuffs. Dry ice doesnot melt, instead it sublimateswhen it comesin contact with air.Gel

32、 packs. Large sharesof pharmaceuticaland medicinal shipments are classifiedas chilled products, which meansthey must bestoredin a temperaturerange between2 and8C. The common method to provide this temperatureis to use gelpacks, or packagesthat contain phasechanging substancesthat can go from solid t

33、o liquid andvice versa to control anenvironment. Depending on theshipping requirements,thesepacks caneither startoff in a frozen or refrigerated state. Along the transit process theymelt to liquids, while at the sametime capturing escapingenergy and maintaining an internal temperature.Eutectic plate

34、s. The principle is similar to gel packs.Instead,platesare filled with a liquid and can be reusedmany times.Liquid nitrogen. An especially cold substance,of about -196 C, used to keeppackages frozen over a long period of time. Mainly used totransportbiological cargo suchas tissues and organs. It is

35、consideredas an hazardoussubstance forthe purposeof transportation.Quilts. Insulatedpiecesthat areplacedover or aroundfreight to act as buffer in temperaturevariations and to maintain the temperaturerelatively constant. Thus, frozen freight will remain frozen for a longer time period, often long eno

36、ugh notto justify the usageof more expensive refrigerationdevices. Quiltscanalso be usedto keep temperaturesensitivefreight at room temperaturewhile outside conditions can substantially vary (e.g. during the summer or thewinter).Reefers.Generic namefor a temperaturecontrolled container,which can be

37、a van, small truck, a semi ora standardISO container. These containers,which are insulated,are specially designed toallow temperaturecontrolled air circulation maintainedby an attachedand independentrefrigeration plant. The term increasingly apply to refrigerated forty foot ISO containers.Perishable

38、or temperaturesensitiveitems are carriedin refrigerated containers(called reefers), that accountfor a growing shareof the refrigeratedcargo beingtransportedaround the world. While in 1980 33% of the refrigeratedtransport capacityin maritime shipping was containerized,this sharerapidly climbed to 47%

39、 in 1990, 68% in 2000 and90% in 2010. About 1.69 million TEUs of reefers werebeing used by 2009.All reefersare paintedwhite to increasethe albedo(shareof the incident light being reflected; high albedoimplies less solar energyabsorbedby the surface)with the dominant size being40 high-cube footers (4

40、5R1being the size and type code).For instancea low albedocontainer can haveits internal temperatureincreaseto 50 C when theexternal temperaturereaches 25 C on a sunnyday while a high albedocontainersee its internal temperatureincreaseto only 38 C under the sameconditions.The refrigeration unit of a

41、reeferrequires an electric powersourceduring transportationand at a containeryard. Regular containershipshave10 to 20% of their slots adaptedto carry reefers,with some shipshaving up to 25% of their slots being dedicated.It is important to underline that therefrigeration units are designedto maintai

42、n the temperaturewithin a prefixed range,not to cool it down. This implies that the shipmentmust bebrought to the requiredtemperaturebefore being loaded into a reefer, which requires specialized warehousing and loading/ unloading facilities. A new generationof reefersis coming online, which are equi

43、pped with anarray of sensorsmonitoring effectively the temperatureand shutting the cooling plant when unnecessary.This enablesto improve the reliability of temperaturecontrol and well as extend the autonomy of the reefer.The growth of the intermodal transportationof reefershas increasinglyrequired t

44、ransport terminals, namely ports,to dedicatea part of their storageyardsto reefers. Thisaccounts between1% to 5% of the total terminal capacity, but canbe higher for transshipmenthubs. The stacking requirementssimply involve having an adjacentpower outlet, but thetask is more labor intensive aseachc

45、ontainermust be plugged and unplugged manually and the temperatureto be monitored regularly as it is the responsibility of the terminal operator to insurethat the reefers keeptheir temperaturewithin presetranges. Thismay alsoforbid the usageof an overheadgantry craneimplying that the reeferstackinga

46、reacanbeservicedby different equipment. Even if reefers involve higher terminal costs, they arevery profitable due to the high value commodities they transport.4. TheSetting and Organization of Cold ChainsMoving a shipment across thesupply chain without suffering any setbacksor temperature anomalies

47、 requires the establishmentof a comprehensivelogistical processthe maintain the shipment integrity. This processconcernsseveralphases rangingfrom the preparationof the shipmentsto final verification of the integrity of the shipmentat thedelivery point:Shipment preparation. When a temperaturesensitiv

48、eproduct is being moved,it is vital to first assessits characteristics.A key issueconcernsthe temperatureconditioning of the shipment,which should be alreadyat the desiredtemperature.Cold chain devicesare commonly designed tokeepa temperatureconstant,but not to bring a shipment to this temperature,s

49、o they would be unable to perform adequatelyif a shipment is not prepared andconditioned. Other concernsinclude the destinationof the shipmentand theweather conditions for those regions, suchas if the shipmentwill be exposedto extremecold or heatalong the transport route.Modal choice. Several key fa

50、ctors playinto how the shipmentwill be moved.Distance betweenthe origin and the final destination (which often includesa set of intermediary locations), the sizeand weight of the shipment, the requiredexterior temperature environment and anytime restrictions of the product all effect the available t

51、ransportation options. Short distances can behandled with a van or truck,while a longer trip may require anairplane or a containership.Custom procedures.If the freight crossesboundaries, customprocedures canbecome very important, since cold chain productstendto be time sensitiveand moresubjectto ins

52、pectionthan regularfreight (e.g. pharmaceuticalsand biological samples).The difficulty of this taskdiffers depending on the nation (or economic bloc) and the gateway sincethere are variations in proceduresand delays.The Last Mile. The last stage is the actual delivery of the shipment to its destinat

53、ion, which in logistics is often known as the“ lastmile ”Key. considerationswhen arranging a final delivery concernnot only the destination,but the timing. Trucks and vans,the primary modes of transportationfor this stage, must meet thespecifications necessaryto transferthe cold chain shipment. Also

54、 important is the final transferof the shipmentinto the storagefacilities as there is potential for a breach of integrity.Integrity and quality assurance.After the shipmenthasbeen delivered, any temperaturerecording devicesor known temperatureanomaliesmust be recordedand made known. This is the step

55、of the logistical process thatcreates trust andaccountability, particularly if liability for a damagedshipment is incurred. If problems or anomaliesthat compromise a shipment do occur, aneffort must be madeto identify the source andfind corrective actions.Therefore,the settingand operation of cold c

56、hainsis dependenton the concernedsupply chainssinceeachcargo unit to be carried hasdifferent requirementsin terms of demand, load integrity and transportintegrity.5. FoodTransportationThere is a variety of methodsfor the transportof food productswith the bananaaccounting for the worlds most signific

57、ant commodity transportedin the food cold chain with 20% of all seabornereeferstrade. Land, sea and airmodes all havedifferent structuresfor keeping food fresh throughout the transport chain.Innovations in packaging, fruit and vegetablecoatings, bioengineering(controlled ripening), and othertechniqu

58、esreducing the deterioration of food productshave helped shippers extend the reach of perishableproducts. For foodproductssuch asfruits and vegetables,time hasa direct impact on their shelf life and therefore on the potential revenue aconsignmentmay generate.Concomitantly, new transport technologies havepermitted the shipment of perishableproductsover longer distances.For instance, improved roadsand intermodal connectionsalong theAfrican coastreducedtransport time for food to European marketsfrom 10 daysto 4 days.Certain domesti