pragmatics.ppt

1、,Preliminary examples,What do you think this sentence mean?,A bank manager to a clerk standing in front of the safe box in the morning.,A person arrives home without a key, no one is there, the person tries the door and it opens.,A person sitting in a draughty room that is freezing cold. .,Two peopl

2、e in an office. Its very noisy next door but the speaker doesnt want to get up.,A receptionist in an office; someone has just rung the bell or knocked.,You forgot to lock it again, Idiot!,What a relief! Now I dont have to sit out here waiting for someone to come. .,No wonder Im cold. .,Please come i

3、n. .,Shut the door! .,There is a couple. The husband works hard every and the wife says this to him. .,Summer is coming. A girl has always been longing for new beautiful skirts, so she says this to her busy mother. .,A lazy husband promised his wife to do housework a few days ago, but he doesnt wake

4、 up until 10 oclock on Sunday morning. The angrily wife shouts to him. .,Darling,you should have a good rest today. .,Mum, lets go downtown to buy new skirts today. .,Get up and do housework now. Its Sunday. .,Interpretation of “Today is Sunday.”,1. Lead-in,Why do we need pragmatics since we have gr

5、ammatical analysis?,1. Lead-in,Why do we need pragmatics since we have grammatical analysis?,6,Oh Yeah.,There are also a number of general motivations for the development of pragmatic theory. One of the most important of these is the possibility that pragmatics can effect a radical simplification of

6、 semantics. The hope is based on the fact that pragmatic principles of language usage can be shown systematically to “read in” to utterances more than they conventionally or literally mean.,Another powerful and general motivation for the interest in pragmatics is the growing realization that there i

7、s a very substantial gap between current linguistic theories of language and accounts of linguistic communication. It is becoming increasingly clear that a semantic theory alone can give us only a proportion of a general account of language understanding.,(7) A: I could eat the whole of that cake B:

8、 Oh, thanks. Finally, another very important general motivation for the recent interest in pragmatics is the possibility that significant functional explanations can be offered for linguistic facts, most recent linguistic explanations have tended to be internal to linguistic theory: that is to say,

9、some linguistic feature is explained by reference to other linguistic features, or to aspects of the theory itself. But there is another possible kind of explanation: some linguistic feature is motivated by principles outside the scope of linguistic theory.,1. What is Pragmatics? The Study of Contex

10、tual Meaning,Pragmatics : a field of study to take care of that part of meaning of language in use. e.g. A: Youre a fool. B: What do you mean? Here, the meaning communicated through language are two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings. The former is studied in semantics and the lat

11、ter in pragmatics.,1. What is Pragmatics? The Study of Contextual Meaning,The difference between semantics and pragmatics “can be traced to two different uses of the verb to mean” 1) What does X mean?(a dyadic relation) 2) What did you mean by X?(a triadic one) Pragmatics has more to do with the ana

12、lysis of what people mean by their utterances that what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves.,1. What is Pragmatics? The Study of Contextual Meaning,Differences between grammatical vs. pragmatic analysis? First, grammatical studies look for grammatical rules while pragma

13、tic studies look for pragmatic principles. Second, In grammar studies, we end up with stable products while in pragmatics we always deal with dynamic processes.,Outline,13,Deixis and distance Politeness principle and interaction Presupposition and entailment,Pragmatics Semantics,Concrete Implicit,Ab

14、stract Explicit,该来的没有来，不该走的倒走了。,Man: Do you love me? Woman: Well, I like you. conversational implicature,1. What is Pragmatics? The Study of Contextual Meaning,In addition, there exist the following: i) Abstract linguistic unit- instances of the system ii) Sentence level- big chunks of conversation/

15、utterance level iii) Sentence in isolation- contexts of situation. iv) Literal meaning- speakers implied meaning v) Abstract meaning-concrete meaning vi) Conventional Meaning- speakers intentional meaning,speaker meaning semantics + pragmatics =study of meaning,1.2.A brief historical overview,Syntac

16、tics (syntax): the study of “the formal relations of signs to one another.” Semantics : the study of “the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable ” Pragmatics : the study of “the relation of signs to interpreters.”,Semantics traditionally deals with meaning as a dynamic r

17、elation, while pragmatics deals with meaning as a triadic relation. The meaning in pragmatics is defined relative to a speaker or user of the language whereas meanings in semantics is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations, speakers

18、, or hearers.,Social norms,Belief,Motivation,Social setting,Lg. users,Time, space,Non-verbal,Pre-text,Context,speaker mg.: dependent on ?,Social norms,Belief,Motivation,Social setting,Lg. users,Time, space,Non-verbal,Pre-text,Context,speaker mg.: context-dependent,Physical,Social,Mental,Function of

19、context in pragmatics,The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Context determines the speakers use of language and also the hearers interpretation of what is said to him/her.,22,Pragmatics vs. semantics,What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether

20、in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If not considered semantics If considered pragmatics,23,Dai Weidong, 2001, p85,Four Aspects of Context,Physical Context: The reality of the situation: where the conversation takes place, what objects are present, what actions are taking place

21、, and so on. Epistemic Context: Background knowledge shared by the speakers and listeners.,Four Aspects of Context,Linguistic Context: Utterances previous to the utterance in consideration. Social Context: The social relationship and setting of the speakers and hearers.,Two people, talking loudly, w

22、alk into an individual study section of the library. They sit down, still talking loudly, but no one says anything to them. After about five minutes, a person sitting across the table from them says sarcastically: “Talk a little louder, would you? I missed what you just said.”,Consider:,What aspects

23、 of context were at work in the example of the sarcastic comment in the library? Physical: Where are they? Linguistic: What utterances (or non-utterances) preceded the comment? Epistemic: How do people usually act in libraries? Toward strangers? Social: What is the relationship between the speakers?

24、,29,1. Definition of Pragmatics,A general definition: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Dai Weidong, 2001, p84,Pragmatics is:,The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers meaning, utterance meaning, the u

25、ttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.,43,I do. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow. I give and bequeath my watch to my brother. I promise to finish it in time. I apologize

26、. I declare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.,44,Felicity conditions合适条件: A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure. (ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate. B. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely. C. Very often, the

27、 relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.,45,Problems with felicity conditions No strict procedure for promising. I promise. I give my word for it. I bequeath my watch to my brother. (T or F?),46,Minister: addressing

28、the groom) (Grooms Name), do you take (Brides Name) for your lawful wedded wife, to live together after Gods ordinance, in the holy estate of matrimony? Will you love, honor, comfort, and cherish her from this day forward, forsaking all others, keeping only unto her for as long as you both shall liv

29、e?,Groom: I do.,47,Features of performatives First person singular subject 第一人称单数主语 Speech act verbs / performative verbs: Simple present tense 一般现在时 Indicative mood 陈述语气 Active voice 主动态,48,I promise to be there. Ill be there. I admit I was wrong. I was foolish. I warn you, this gun is loaded. This

30、 gun is loaded. I thank you. Im very grateful. I apologize. Im sorry. I order you to sit down. You must sit down.,49,Conclusion: The distinction between constatives ,79,Maxim of Relation: 相关准则 Be relative. Maxim of Manner: 方式准则/明晰准则 Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be

31、brief. Be orderly.,80,CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.,CP is descriptive, not prescriptive.,81,However, CP is often violated. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to

32、conversational implicature (implied meaning).,Conversational implicature会话含义/会话隐涵,A type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with context, under the guidance of the Cooperative Principle and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is compa

33、rable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese.,82,83,Violation of the maxims (Quantity),Make your contribution as informative as is required. A: 昨天上街买了些什么? B: 就买了些东西。 I dont want to tell you what I bought.,84

34、,Dear Sir, Mr. Xs command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours (Mr. X is applying for a letureship in philosophy) Mr. X is not suitable for the job.,85,2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Aunt: How did Jimmy do his history e

35、xam? Mother: Oh, not at all well. Teachers asked him things that happened before the poor boy was born. Her son should not be blamed.,86,A: Your kid broke the window. B: Boys are boys. War is war. ,Boys are naughty by nature, so dont blame him.,War is cruel, there will be casualties and devastations

36、.,tautology 同义反复句,87,Violation of the maxims (Quality),1. Do not say what you believe to be false. You are the cream in my coffee. X runs as fast as a deer. He is made of iron.,88,2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. A: Beirut is in Peru, isnt it? B: And Rome is in Romania, I sup

37、pose. Its ridiculous.,89,Violation of the maxims (Relation),Be relevant. A: Prof. Wang is an old bag. B: Nice weather for the time of year. I dont want to talk about Prof. Wang.,90,萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好,很忠诚的。 朴：恩，我很累了。 我预备到书房歇一下。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。 ,91,Violation of the maxims (Manner),1. Avoid obscurity o

38、f expression A: Lets get the kids something. B: Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E. Dont give them chocolate.,92,2. Avoid ambiguity A: Name and title, please? B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor. Cf: 买一赠一。,93,3. Be brief A: Did you get my assignment? B: I received two pages clipped together

39、and covered with rows of black squiggles. not satisfied.,-Is your boss a nice man? - He wears a pink tie! - Have you finished the paper for semantics and the reading for pragmatics? - I ve done the paper. - Shall we invite Sam as well? - Well, Sams parents are with him now. - How did you like the ha

40、mburger? - Tina, hamburger is hamburger.,94,Exercises,Looking at the following conversations, think about the questions below: What maxim or maxims do you think speakers seem to flout? How would the hearer infer the words? What implicatures would you draw?,95,Exercise 1,Mother: Wheres the cake? Jimm

41、y: Lucy was just in the kitchen.,96,Maxims of Quantity and Relation,Exercise 2,Man: May I know your name? Woman: Diana Wang. And yours? Man: David. David Zhang. My friends all call me Dave. I am a director in a joint venture. Im going to New York on a business trip next week.,97,Maxims of Quantity i

42、mplicatures do not vanish if the words of an utterance are changed for synonyms. A: Shall we go the cinema tonight? B: Therell be an exam tomorrow. Ill take an exam tomorrow. Isnt there an exam tomorrow?,102,Non-conventionality非常规性: implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words. It

43、 is context-dependent. It varies with context. A1：下午踢球去吧！ A2：老王住院了？ B：上午还在换草皮。 A3: 足球场安装了一个新门柱。,103,5. Politeness Principle,Grices CP does not explain why speakers often violate CP . Geoffrey Leech: Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 2002. Princ

44、iples of Pragmatics (1983): puts forward PP to save CP.,104,A: Well miss Bill and Mary, wont we? B: Well, well all miss Bill. (violation of quantity maxim),105,Self(自身)-refers to the speaker. Other (他人)-refers to the addressee or a third person, present or not. Benefit (惠) and the first maxim of Qua

45、ntity the Principle of Quantity, or Q-Principle.,162,The M-principle: Levinson mixes the presentation of his own ideas with the criticism of Horns principles. He accuses Horn of failing to draw a distinction between two kinds of minimization: a semantic minimization 语义最小化and an expression minimizati

46、on表达式最小化.,163,The semantic, or content, minimization 语义/内容最小化is equivalent to semantic generality语义概括化: the more general terms are more minimal in meaning, having more restricted connotation (in contrast to the more extended denotation); 概括性越强的词语，语义量越小，内涵越小 （相反，其外延会越大）and the less general, the more

47、specific, are less minimal, more maximal概括性越差、越具体的词语，则语义量越大.,For example, ship is more general than ferry, flower than rose, animal than tiger. The choice of the former instead of the latter is a process toward minimization.,164,165,The expression, or form, minimization 表达式/形式最小化is some measure of s

48、urface length and complexity就表面的长度和复杂性而言. It is concerned with the phonetic and morphological make-up of a term. 与一个词语的语音形式和词汇形态有关 The normally stressed terms are more minimal than their abnormally stressed counterparts. 正常重音的词语要比相应的非正常重音的词语形式小,The shorter terms are more minimal than longer ones, pr

49、ovided they are synonymous, such as frequent and not infrequent, to stop a car and to cause a car to stop. 语义相当情况下，越短的词语，形式越小，越长的词语，形式越大。,166,167,Only the semantic minimization has to do with the I-principle. 语义最小化与信息量原则有关 The expression minimization, in contrast, is the domain of the principle of m

50、anner, 表达式最小化属于方式原则as it concerns the form of a linguistic unit, the way to express something rather than what is expressed, or how much is expressed与语言单位的形式、表达的方式有关，与表达的内容或表达的多少无关 .,168,Recently, Levinson calls his principles “heuristics”探索法. Levinson (2000): Presumptive Meaning. MIT. Heuristic 1.

51、What isnt said, isnt.没有说的，就是不想说的 Heuristic 2. What is simply described is stereotypically exemplified.简单描述的是用通常方式举例说明的 Heuristic 3. Whats said in an abnormal way, isnt normal; or Marked message indicates marked situation.用不正常方式表达的，就是不正常的；即有标记信息表示有标记情形,169,Heuristic 1: Q-Heuristic 数量探索法 “more or less

52、 transparently related to Grices first Maxim of Quantity” Responsible for two types of implicatures: scalar implicatures 等级会话含义and clausal implicatures分句会话含义 Some of the boys came. (scalar) Not all the boys came. If eating eggs is bad for you, you should give up omelets. (clausal) Eating eggs may be

53、 bad for you, or it may not be bad for you.,170,Scalar implicatures are the implicatures which involve the Q-principle in Horns sense. Words like all and some form a scalar contrast set , in which all is the more informative, or stronger, term, and some the less informative, or weaker, term.,171,Cla

54、usal implicatures involve the use of different clauses. Since eating eggs is bad for you, you should give up omelets. Eating eggs may be bad for you, or it may not be bad for you.,172,Two clausal alternates: If eating eggs is bad for you, you should give up omelets. Since eating eggs is bad for you,

55、 you should give up omelets. which may be expressed as The clause using since is the more informative, or stronger, alternate, and the one using if the less informative, or weaker, alternate.,173,Heuristic 2: I-Heurisitc信息量探索法 “may be related directly to Grices second Maxim of Quantity, . The underl

56、ying idea is, of course, that one need not say what can be taken for granted”. (a) John turned the key and the engine started. (b) John turned the key, and then the engine started. John turned the key, therefore the engine started. John turned the key in order to start the engine.,174,(a) If you mow the lawn, Ill give you $5. (b) If and only if you mow the lawn, Ill give you $5. (a) John unpacked the picnic. The beer was w