英语词汇学English Lexicology (I)

,“Withoutgrammarverylittlecanbeconveyed,withoutvocabularynothingcanbeconveyed.”,EnglishLexicology(I),EnglishLexicology(I),2,unilateral,bilateral,trilateral,multilateralmonogamy,polygamyinflexible,imbalance,irrational,illegaldownload,copyright,motherwit,greenwealthWesummeredinQingdaolastyear.,EnglishLexicology(I),3,skate,skim,skin,ski,sketch,skidThisfoxgoeswellwithyourcap.Heistoofoundofbottles.blue-collarworkers,white-collarworkers,gray-collarworks,pink-collarworks,gold-collarworkersforbiddenfruitsThequestionwasliketheSphinxsriddletothemYourAdamsappleisnotapparentastimidasarabbit;agreenhand,EnglishLexicology(I),4,Itsadifficultoperation.IdothinkAdamisquick.asheetofpaper;awhitepaper,atermpaper;todayspaper,examinationpaper,EnglishLexicology(I),5,Heisawiseboy.A:IsthelibraryopenSundays?B:Ofcourse.LadiesandGentleman,Imdelightedtointroduceyouaveryprettygirl,MissBrown.SheisaverygoodteacherfromU.S.A.,EnglishLexicology(I),6,Contents,1.Introduction2.BasicConceptsofWordsandVocabulary3.TheDevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary4.MorphologicalStructure,Tobecontinued,Chapter1Introduction,1.1Language,LinguisticsandLexicology1.2AimsandSignificanceoftheCourse,EnglishLexicology(I),8,1.1Language,LinguisticsandLexicology,Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisaspecificsocialactionandacarrierofinformation.,“LanguageismanswayofcommunicationwithhisfellowmanandItislanguagealonewhichseparatehimfromtheloweranimals”,EnglishLexicology(I),9,1.1Language,LinguisticsandLexicology,Whatislinguistics?Generallyspeaking,linguisticscanbedefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Tobemoreexact,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofhumancommunication,EnglishLexicology(I),10,1.1Language,LinguisticsandLexicology,Whatislexicology?Lexicologyisabranchoflinguisticsconcernedwiththestudyofthevocabularyofagivenlanguage.Itdealswithwords,theirorigin,development,structure,formation,meaningandusage.,EnglishLexicology(I),11,1.2AimsandSignificanceoftheCourse,Whatislexicology?Englishlexicologyisatheoretically-orientedcourse.ItischieflyconcernedwiththebasictheoriesofwordsingeneralandofEnglishwordsinparticular.However,itisapracticalcourseaswell,forinthediscussion,weshallinevitablydealwithcopiousstocksofwordsandidioms,andstudymanyusageexamples.Naturally,therewillbealargequantityofpracticeinvolved.,EnglishLexicology(I),12,1.2AimsandSignificanceoftheCourse,TheroleofvocabularyinthelanguagesystemVocabularyisthebuildingmaterialofthelanguagesystem.Itisoneofthethereessentialelementsoflanguage:speechsounds,grammarandvocabulary.“Withoutgrammarverylittlecanbeconveyed,withoutvocabularynothingcanbeconveyed.”“thereisasenseinwhichlearningaforeignlanguageisbasicallyamatteroflearningthevocabularyofthatlanguage.Notbeingabletofindthewordstoexpressyourselfisthemostfrustratingexperienceinspeakinganotherlanguage.”,EnglishLexicology(I),13,1.2AimsandSignificanceoftheCourse,AimsofthecourseGiveasystematicdescriptionoftheEnglishvocabulary.OfferaninsightintotheoriginanddevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabulary.Discusstheproblemsofword-structureandword-formationStudytheuseofEnglishwords,theirmeaningsandchangesinmeaning,theirsenserelations.,EnglishLexicology(I),14,1.2AimsandSignificanceoftheCourse,ThesignificanceofthecourseDevelopyourpersonalvocabularyandconsciouslyincreaseyourwordpower(activevocabulary).Understandword-meaningandorganize,classifyandstorewordsmoreeffectively.Raiseyourawarenessofmeaningandusages,usewordsmoreaccuratelyandappropriately.Developyourskillsandhabitsofanalyzingandgeneralizinglinguisticphenomenainyourlearningexperiences.Ultimatelyimproveyourreceptiveandproductiveskillsinlanguageprocessingaswellaslanguageproduction.,EnglishLexicology(I),15,FourlevelsofwordpowerSpeakingvocabulary(activevocabulary)Writingvocabulary(activevocabulary)Readingvocabulary(passivevocabulary)Guessvocabulary(passivevocabulary),EnglishLexicology(I),16,Watergate,Irangate,Zippergateecology,ecocide,ecocrisis,eco-friendly-ump:plump,chump,rump,hump,stump,dump,mump,lump,bump,tump,EnglishLexicology(I),17,Picturepainting,drawing(includingsketch,diagram,graph),illustration,chartAflockofsheep,goats,birdsAherbofcows,elephants,zebras,antelopesAschooloffish,whales,dolphinsAswarmofants,bees,wasps,locusts(insects)AprideoflionsEssential,indispensable,necessaryWarmclothingisindispensableincoldwealth.Itsnecessaryforustostudyhard.Theessentialpointiswemustdowhatthecontractsays.,EnglishLexicology(I),18,NationalpsychologyDutch:togoDutch,totalkDutch,doubleDutch,Dutchcourage,Dutchbargain,Dutchcomfort,ImaDutchmanifCognateadjectiveshistoric,historical;economic,economical;considerable,considerable:comprehensible,comprehensive;confident,confidential,Chapter2BasicConceptsofWordsandVocabulary,2.1WhatIsaWord?2.2Word,lexicalItem,Vocabulary2.3SoundandMeaning2.4MeaningandConcept2.5ClassificationofWords,EnglishLexicology(I),20,ThestructureofEnglishwords,EntryLexemeWordformLexicalunit词是能独立运用的、最小的、有语义的语言单位。FunctionwordandcontentwordI(pron.我）Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis(n.肺尘病）,EnglishLexicology(I),21,2.1WhatIsaWord?,ThedefinitionofawordItisquitedifficulttostatethecriteriabywhichawordcanbedefined;sofarnocompletelysatisfactorydefinitionhasbeengiven.Inbrief,awordmaybedefinedasafundamentalunitofspeechandminimumfreeform;withaunityofsoundandmeaning(bothlexicalandgrammaticalmeaning),capableofperformingagivensyntacticfunction.Therefore,fromthelexicologicalpointofview,awordisacombinationofform(phonological)andmeaning(lexicalandgrammatical).Inaddition,awordactsasastructuralunitofasentence.,EnglishLexicology(I),22,2.1WhatIsaWord?,ThedefinitionofawordTosumup,thedefinitionofawordcomprisesthefollowingpointsAminimalfreeformofalanguageAsoundunityAunitofmeaningAformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentence,EnglishLexicology(I),23,Compare:,BookbooksbookishbookcaseToleratetolerancetoleranttolerationtolerableintolerableTelephonetelegramtelescopetelecommunication,EnglishLexicology(I),24,book+sbook+ishbook+caseToler+atetoler+ancetoler+anttoler+ationtoler+ablein+toler+able-ateTele-phoneMorpheme,EnglishLexicology(I),25,2.2Word,LexicalItem,Vocabulary,LexicalitemAunitofvocabularyisgenerallyreferredtoasalexicalitem.Acompleteinventoryofthelexicalitemsofalanguageconstitutesthatlanguagesdictionary.,EnglishLexicology(I),26,2.2Word,LexicalItem,Vocabulary,VocabularyBroadlyspeaking,allthewordsinalanguagetogetherconstitutewhatisknownasvocabulary.Thetermvocabularyusuallyreferstoacompleteinventoryofthewordsinalanguage.Butitmayalsorefertothewordsandphrasesusedinthevariantsofalanguage,suchasdialect,register,terminology,etc.ThereisatotalEnglishvocabularyofmorethan1million.,EnglishLexicology(I),27,2.2Word,LexicalItem,Vocabulary,RelationNationalexicalitem,alsoawordNational,nationalize,nationalism,theChinesenation,theUnitednationswordsandwordequivalentsAllthewordsandwordequivalentsconstitutethevocabularyofalanguage.,EnglishLexicology(I),28,2.3SoundandMeaning,Thereisadebateovertheconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.Mainlytherearetwopositions.Thenaturalistsmaintainthereisanaturalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.TheConventionalists,ontheotherhand,holdthattherelationsbetweensoundandmeaningareconventionalandarbitrary.Themeaningofawordisakindoflinguisticsocialcontract.Factshaveprovedthisargumenttobevalid.Wordsthatconveythesamemeaninghavedifferentphonologicalformsindifferentlanguages.Alternatively,thesamephonologicalformsmayconveydifferentmeanings;e.g.:sight,site,cite.,EnglishLexicology(I),29,2.4MeaningandConcept,RelationMeaningiscloselyrelatedtoaconcept.Aconceptisthebaseofthemeaningofaword.Awordisusedtolabelaconcept.Theconceptisabstractedfromtheperson,thing,relationship,idea,event,andsoon,thatwearethinkingabout.Wecallthisthereferent.Thewordreferstothereferentthroughaconcept.Thisapproachtomeaningcanbediagrammedasfollowings:wordconceptreferent.,EnglishLexicology(I),30,2.4MeaningandConcept,Butmeaningisdifferentfromconcept:Aconceptisanabstractionfromthingsofthesamekind.Aconceptreferstosomethingingeneral,butnotinparticular,whilemeaningcanreferstobothsomethingingeneralandinparticular.Forexample:somehavebeguntorealizethattheautomobileisamixedblessing.Theautomobilewasstalledinasnowstorm.,EnglishLexicology(I),31,2.4MeaningandConcept,Butmeaningisdifferentfromconcept:Meaninginthelanguagecontextmayhaveemotionalandstylisticcolors,expressonesemotion,attitudeandposition.Therefore,meaningaddssupplementaryvaluetotheconceptthewordexpresses.Forexample,dogmightincludetheconnotationsoffriend,helper,loyalty,etc.otherexamplesare:motherland,home,candle,locust,panda,etc.,EnglishLexicology(I),32,2.5ClassificationofWords,TheEnglishvocabularyconsistsofdifferentkindsofwords,whichmaybeclassifiedbydifferentcriteria.Inthissectionwewilldiscussthreemaincriteria:ByoriginBylevelofusageBynotion,EnglishLexicology(I),33,2.5ClassificationofWords,Byorigin,NativewordsLoanwords,EnglishLexicology(I),34,2.5ClassificationofWords,NativewordsWordsofAnglo-Saxonoriginarenativewords.TheyformthegreatmajorityofthebasicwordstockoftheEnglishlanguage.Thebasicwordstockisthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedoveranumberofepochs.MostnativewordsinmodernEnglisharemonosyllabic.Thoughsmallinnumber,thesewordsaretheonesusedmostfrequentlyineverydayspeechandwriting;theyplaynosmallpartinlinguisticperformanceandcommunication.,EnglishLexicology(I),35,2.5ClassificationofWords,NativewordsInthenativestockwefindthemostfrequentlyusedwordsdenotingthecommonestthingsnecessaryforlife,suchasnamesofnaturalphenomena(sun,moon,rain,frost,snow),namesofanimalsandplants(horse,dog,tree,flower),namesofpartsofbody(head,hand,foot),adjectivesdenotingsizeandcolor(big,small,red,white),verbsexpressingconcreteactions(live,eat,work,go,come)auxiliaryandmodalverbs,pronouns,mostnumerals,prepositionsandconjunctions.,EnglishLexicology(I),36,2.5ClassificationofWords,NativewordsThefundamentalfeaturesofthebasicwordstockNationalcharacter:Wordsofthebasicwordstockdenotethemostcommonthingsandphenomenaoftheword.Thesewordscannotbeavoidedbyanyspeakerofagivencommunity,irrespectiveofclassorigin,education,profession,geographicalregions,culture,etc.Stability:aswordsinthebasicwordstockdenotethecommonestthingsnecessarytolife,theyarelikelytoremainunchanged.,EnglishLexicology(I),37,2.5ClassificationofWords,NativewordsThefundamentalfeaturesofthebasicwordstockProductivity:Wordsofthebasicwordstockaremostlyrootwordsormonosyllabicwords.Theyareveryactiveinformingnewwords.Forexample,thewordhandformssuchderivativesandcompoundsas:handful,handy,handily,handbag,handball,handwriting,etc.Collocability:Basicwordscombinereadilywithotherwordstoformhabitualexpressionsandphrases.Thewordhandagaincanbefoundinphraseslikeatfirsthand,handinhand,toshowoneshand,toplayintosb.shands,andsoon.,EnglishLexicology(I),38,2.5ClassificationofWords,LoanwordsTheEnglishvocabularyhasreplenisheditselfbycontinuallytakingoverwordsfromotherlanguagesoverthecenturies.Thosewordsborrowedfromotherlanguagesareloanwordsorborrowedwords.ThehistoricaldevelopmentoftheEnglishlanguageshowsthatEnglishisaheavyborrower;ithasadoptedwordsfromalmosteveryknownlanguage,especiallyfromLatin,French,andGreek.AfterWorldWarIItheEnglishvocabularyexpandedataratemuchfasterthaneverbefore.,EnglishLexicology(I),39,2.5ClassificationofWords,Bylevelofusage,CommonwordsLiterarywordsColloquialwordsSlangwordsTechnicalwords,EnglishLexicology(I),40,2.5ClassificationofWords,CommonwordsCommonwordsareconnectedwiththeordinarythingsoractivitiesnecessarytoeverydaylife.Thecoreofthecommonwordsisthebasicwordstock.Theyarestylisticallyneutral,hencetheyareappropriateinbothformalandinformalwritingandspeech.,EnglishLexicology(I),41,2.5ClassificationofWords,LiterarywordsLiterarywordsarechieflyusedinwriting,especiallyinbookswritteninamoreelevatedstyle,inofficialdocuments,orinformalspeeches.Theyarecomparativelyseldomusedinordinaryconversation.InEnglish,mostoftheliterarywordsareofFrench,LatinorGreekorigin.Manyofthemhavetheireverydaysynonyms.Forexample,cast(throw),edifice(building),endeavor(try),purchase(buy),etc.Moreexamples:recognition,distinction,inclination,dubious,amelioration,EnglishLexicology(I),42,2.5ClassificationofWords,ColloquialwordsIncontrastwithliterarywords,colloquialwordsorexpressionsareusedmainlyinspokenEnglish,asinconversationamongfriendsandcolleagues.Theycanalsobeuseininformalwritings,butareinappropriateinformalspeechesorwritings.Theyaremarkedcolloq.orinformalindictionaries.Suchas:kid,guy,fellow,gay,EnglishLexicology(I),43,2.5ClassificationofWords,Compare:Feelingfatigued,tomretiredearly.(literary)Tomfeltsodog-tiredhehitthesackearly.(colloquial)Johnwasdismissedforpettythieving.(common)Johnwasfiredforpettythieving.(colloquial)Penaltiesforoverduebookswillbestrictlyenforced(literary)Youhavegottopayfinesforoverduebooks.(colloquial)Theyapprovedoftheplan.(literary)Theyagreedtotheplan.(common),EnglishLexicology(I),44,2.5ClassificationofWords,SlangwordsSlangisdefinedaslanguage,wordsorphrasesofacolorful,facetious(playfullyjocular;humorous),ortaboonature,inventedforspecificoccasions,oruses,orderivedfromtheunconventionaluseofthestandardvocabulary.Thechiefreasonfortheformationanduseofslangexpressionsistosecurefreshnessandnovelty.Aslangusageisnotgenerallyusedinformalconversationunlessthespeakersareonintimateterms;slangembracesthosedaringandnewexpressionsthathavenotbeenacceptedbythemajorityofpeopleasStandardEnglish.,EnglishLexicology(I),45,2.5ClassificationofWords,SlangwordsBeaver(girl)Smoky,bear(police)Nut,dome,upper,bean,block(head)Elevated,merry,jolly,comfortable,boiled,tight,blue-eyed,stiff(drunk),EnglishLexicology(I),46,2.5ClassificationofWords,TechnicalwordsTechnicalorspecialwordsrefertothosewordsusedinparticulardisciplinesandacademicareas.Theyarealsocalledterminologiesortechnicalterms.Everybranchofscience,everyprofessionortrade,everyartandeverysortofsportshasitsowntechnicalterms.ThefunctionofthosetechnicalwordsispartlytodenotethingsorprocesseswhichhavenonamesinordinaryEnglish,andpartlytoincreaseprecisioninnomenclature.,EnglishLexicology(I),47,2.5ClassificationofWords,TechnicalwordsInmusic:symphony,sonata,orchestra,concerto.Ineducation:audiovisual,microteachingInmathematics:algebra,geometry,calculus,trigonometryInbiology:clone,embryo,cell,organism,DNA(deoxyribonucleicacid),gene,EnglishLexicology(I),48,2.5ClassificationofWords,TechnicalwordsMostofthesetechnicaltermsareLatinorGreekinorigin.Infact,theyarepartofliterarywords.Mostofthetechnicalwordsremainessentiallyforeigntooutsiders,eventoeducatednativespeakers.However,undertheinfluenceofradio,television,newspaperandtheInternet,wearewitnessingaremarkablebreakingdownofthebarrierbetweentechnicalandcommonwords.Manytechnicalneologismscreatedyesterdaybyspecialistsaretodayheardinordinaryconversation,e.g.moonwalk,spaceshutter,gene,transgenic,clone,etc.,EnglishLexicology(I),49,2.5ClassificationofWords,Bynotion,FunctionwordsContentwords,EnglishLexicology(I),50,2.5ClassificationofWords,FunctionwordsFunctionwordsareoftenshortwordssuchasdeterminers,conjunctions,prepositions,auxiliaries,andsoforth.Althoughtheydonothavemuchoftheirlexicalmeaning,theyhaveaspecialkindofmeaning-grammaticalmeaning.Theyactasgrammaticalsignalstoshowtheconnectionbetweencontentwords.Anotherimportantcharacteristicisthatfunctionwordsbelongtoarelativelysmallandpermanentsetofwords,incomparisontocontentwords.Thetotalnumberoffunctionalwordsisabout154.Theyarestable;theydonotcomeandgowithchangingfashionsandideas.,EnglishLexicology(I),51,2.5ClassificationofWords,ContentwordsContentwordshaveindependentlexicalmeanings.Contentwordsbelongtoanopenlist.Newlexicalitemsareconstantlybeingcreated,andnoonecouldmakeacompletelistofallthecontentwordsinEnglish.,Chapter3TheDevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment3.2TheGrowthofPresent-dayEnglishVocabulary3.3PercentageofEachSourceofNewWords3.4ModesofEnglishVocabularyDevelopment,EnglishLexicology(I),53,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,ThestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabularyshouldnotbetreatedinisolationfromthehistoryandthegrowthoftheEnglishlanguageitself.UnderstandingthehistorymaygiveusaninsightintothenatureofEnglish:extremelyrichandheterogeneous,aheavyborrower,fullofsynonyms,globallanguage.,EnglishLexicology(I),54,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,EnglishLexicology(I),55,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,EnglishLexicology(I),56,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguageisdividedintothreeperiods.TheOldEnglish(450-1100)TheMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)TheModernEnglish(1500-present),EnglishLexicology(I),57,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,TheOldEnglish(450-1100)ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguagebeginswiththeconquestandsettlementofwhatisnowEnglandbytheAngles,Saxons,andtheJutesfromabout450AD.ThelanguagetheyspokewasAnglo-Saxon,whichreplacedtheCelticspokenbytheformerinhabitantsCelts.,EnglishLexicology(I),58,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,TheOldEnglish(450-1100)ThevocabularyofOldEnglishwaschieflyAnglo-SaxonwithasmallmixtureofOldNorsewordsasaresultoftheScandinavianortheDanishconquestsofEnglandintheninthcentury,suchas,cake,call,egg,knife,take,give,etc.TheEnglishcontinuedtoadoptwordsfromLatinduringtheOldEnglishperiodduetotheAnglesandSaxonsvariouscontactswiththeRomans,suchas,candle,kettle,mountain,school,cup,etc.,EnglishLexicology(I),59,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,TheMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)MiddleEnglishischaracterizedbythestronginfluenceofFrenchfollowingtheNormanConquestin1066.SincetheFrench-speakingNormansweretherulingclass,Frenchwasusedforallstateaffairsandformostsocialandculturalmatters;butthemassescontinuedtospeakEnglish.ThelanguagethatemergedatthattimeshowedvastandsignificantchangesintheEnglishvocabulary-thelossofalargepartoftheOldEnglishwordstockandtheadoptionofthousandsofFrenchwords.,EnglishLexicology(I),60,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,TheMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)TheNormanConquest:WilliamtheConqueror,theDukeofNormandy,invadedandconqueredEnglandandtheAnglo-Saxonsin1066AD.,EnglishLexicology(I),61,3.1TheHistoricalDevelopment,TheMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)TheFrenchloanwordswerefoundineverysectionofthevocabulary:lawandgovernmentaladministration(judge,jury,justi