测绘专业英语翻译.docx

目录1.3.3 Origin of Geomatics12.3 Map projections地图投影42.4 Datums and coordinate system基准和坐标系统92.4.1 Horizontal and vertical datums水平基准和高程基准91.Horizontal datums水平基准102.Vertical datum高程基准114.4 Trigonometric leveling三角高程144.4.1 Instruments of trigonometric leveling三角高程测量仪器144.4.2 Principle of trigonometric leveling三角高程测量的原理154.4.3 Methods of trigonometric leveling三角高程测量方法166.1 Introduction引言176.1.1 Sources of errors fall误差源196.1.2 Mistakes in measurements测量失误206.2 Classifications of errors误差分类216.2.1 Systematic errors系统误差226.2.2 Random errors 随机误差246.3 Analysis of random errors随机误差分析256.3.1 Properties of random errors随机误差的特性257.3.1 Classifications of traversing导线测量的分类281. Open traverse 支导线282. Closed traverse 闭合导线308.2 Construction layout施工放样328.3 Deformation monitoring变形监测341.3.3 Origin of Geomatics测绘的起源Geomatics is a relatively new scientific term created by Pollock and Wright in 1969, with the intention of combining the terms geodesy and geoinformatics. It includes the tools and techniques used in surveying and mapping, Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), cartography, photogrammetry, geography, geosciences, computer sciences and various spatial observation technologies, land development and the environmental sciences, etc.测绘学是一个相对比较新的科学术语，它是1969年波洛克和赖特为了结合测地学和地理信息技术而创造的。它包含的工具和技术应用于测绘学好，遥感，地理信息系统，全球导航系统，制图学，摄影测量学，地理学，地球科学，计算机科学与各种空间观测技术，土地开发与环境科学，等等。The term was originally used in Canada, and now it has been adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and many other international authorities. Although some (especially in the United States )authorities have shown a preference for the term geospatial technology, the rapid progress of Geomatics has been made possible by advances in computer hardware, computer science, and software engineering, as well as airborne and space observation remote sensing technologies since 1990s.这个术语最初用于加拿大，现在他被国际标准化组织，皇家特许测绘师协会和很多国际权威所使用。尽管一些机构（尤其是在美国的）表现出倾向于地理空间技术，但高速发展的测绘可能基于计算机硬件，计算机科学和软件工程的发展，同样自90年代起，航天航空遥感技术也得到了发展。A working definition of Geomatics is the science and technology of acquiring, storing, processing, managing, analyzing and presenting geographically referenced information. This broad term applies to science and technology, and integrates the following more specific disciplines and technologies including surveying and mapping, and mapping, geodesy, satellite positioning systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou Compass ), photogrammetry, remote sensing (RS), Geographic information systems (GIS), cartography, land management ,computer systems, environmental visualization and computer graphics, etc. 测绘工作的定义是科学和技术的获取、存储、处理、管理、分析和呈现地理参考信息。这个宽泛的概念，适用于科学和技术，并集成了以下更具体的学科和技术包括测绘、测绘、大地测量、卫星定位系统（GPS、GLONASS、伽利略、北斗罗盘）、摄影测量、遥感（RS）、地理信息系统（GIS）、制图、土地管理、计算机系统，环境的可视化和计算机图形学等。The term geomatics has been introduced worldwide to a number of institutes of higher education during the past few years, mostly by renaming what was previously called “geodesy” or “surveying”, and by adding a number of computer science, information science and GIS, RS, GPS-oriented courses. For example, some university departments were once titled surveying, survey engineering or topographic science have re-titled themselves as Geomatics or Geomatics engineering. The term geomatics can bridge wide arcs from the geosciences through various engineering sciences and computer sciences to spatial planning, land development and the environmental sciences, and being better used to convey the true collective and scientific nature of these related activities and also have the flexibility to incorporate the future technological developments in these fields. 地球这个词已经推出了全球许多高等教育机构在过去的几年中，主要是通过重命名以前被称为“大地测量学”或“测量”，并加入了一些计算机科学、信息科学和GIS、RS、GPS定向课程。例如，一些高校曾经名为测量、工程测量、地形科学已经重新命名自己为测绘或地理信息工程。地球这个词可以桥宽弧从地球通过各种科学工程和计算机科学的空间规划，土地开发与环境科学，并较好地传达这些相关活动的集体和科学的真正性质，还可以灵活地将这些领域的未来技术的发展。The advent and adoption of the term Geomatics do not suggest that the term “surveyor”out of use and so as some other related terms such as land surveyor or building surveyor, etc. The traditionally-used term “surveyor” is still appropriate to collectively describe those engaged in surveying activities. The job descriptions such as Land Surveyor, Engineering Surveyor or Hydrographic Surveyor, are still commonly used by practitioners to clearly describe their specialized expertise. In the last decade, there have been dramatic development and growths in the use of hardware and software solutions to both measure and process geo-spatial data. This has created and will continue to create new areas of application, and provides the suitably qualified practitioners with more related job opportunities. As a result, the role of the “surveyor” is expanding beyond traditional areas of practice and into new areas of opportunity. 的到来和术语测绘采用不建议“师”的使用等其他一些相关术语如“土地测量员”或“建筑师”等传统使用的术语“测量师”仍然是适合描述那些从事测绘活动。职位描述，如土地测量、工程测量、水文勘测员，仍然是常用的从业人员清楚地描述他们的专门知识。在过去的十年中，出现了戏剧性的发展和生长在使用硬件和软件措施和处理地理空间数据的解决方案。这已经创造并将继续创造新的应用领域，并提供适当的合格从业人员与更多相关的工作机会。其结果是，“测量师”的作用是超越传统领域的实践，并进入新的领域的机会。2.3 Map projections地图投影A map is a graphic or visual representation of all or parts of the Earth, and on a map the real-world features of an area are usually depicted by symbols in their correct spatial locations, and reduced at certain scales, highlighting relationships between elements of the area such as objects, regions and themes.地图是地球的所有或部分的图形或可视化表示，并在地图上的一个区域的真正的字功能通常被描述在其正确的空间位置的符号，并减少在一定的尺度，突出的区域，如对象，区域和主题之间的关系。It is well known that only on a globe can keep the scale constant. Moved from the curved surface of the sphere or ellipsoid to the flat surface, the map will be distorted in some way. The conventional ways that deal with the distortion problems are map projections. 众所周知，只有在地球上才能保持规模不变。从球面或椭球面到平面的曲面，地图会以某种方式被扭曲。处理失真问题的常规方法是映射预测。Surveyors usually deal with map features on a plane surface. The map features correspond to relevant spatial features on the surface of the Earth. The locations of map spatial features are based on a coordinate system, while the locations of spatial features are decided by their longitudes and latitudes on the geographic grid. 验船师通常处理平面图的特点。地图特征对应于地球表面的相关空间特征。地图空间特征的位置是基于一个坐标系统，而空间特征的位置是决定其经度和纬度的地理网格。The transformation from a geographic grid to a map coordinate system (converting data in latitude and longitude into a flat map, with X and Y axis) is referred to as map projection. That is to say, map projection is an attempt to portray the surface of the Earth or a portion of the Earth on a flat surface. 从地理网格到地图坐标系的转换（在经纬度转换成平面地图的数据，用x轴）被称为地图投影。也就是说，地图投影是一种试图描绘地球表面或地球表面的一部分的尝试。As shown in Figure 2.5, there always exist some distortions, such as length distortion, angle distortion or area distortion, resulting from the process of map projections. Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at expense of maximizing errors in others, so no projection can be simultaneously conformal and area-preserving.如图2.5所示，在地图投影的过程中始终存在一些扭曲，如长度变形、角度畸变或区域失真等现象。一些预测，以减少失真，在一些这些属性，在牺牲最大限度地提高别人的错误，所以没有投影可以同时保形和区域保护。The distortion properties of map projection are as follows; 地图投影的变形特性如下； (1) Conformality; Scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the same distance on the Earth. When the scale at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal. Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles. Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps.（1）协调；规模是一个距离在地图上描绘地球相同的距离之间的关系。当在地图上的任何一点上的刻度是相同的任何方向，投影是保形的。经络（直线）和平行线（直线）在直角相交。保形图上保形保形。 (2) Distance; A map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of projection to any other place on map. Equidistant projection, a kind of arbitrary projection, refers to that the distance remains constant after projected along a specific direction, and namely along the specific direction, the length ratio is equal to 1. In practical applications, meridians are usually projected as straight lines, and the distances along a longitudinal direction are maintained equal, the angles and areas are distorted. The equidistant projection is frequently used for drawing traffic map.（2）距离；地图是等距当它描绘了距离投影中心的地图上的任何地方。等距投影、一种任意投影，是指距离保持不变后，预计沿着特定的方向，即沿着特定的方向，长度比等于1。在实际应用中，经络通常投影为直线，沿纵向方向的距离保持相等，角度和面积都是扭曲的。等距投影是经常用于绘制交通图。 (3) Direction; A map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to another point) are portrayed correctly in all directions.（3）方向；地图保留方向时，方位角（从线路上的一个点到另一点的角度）描述正确四面八方。 (4)Area; when a map portrays areas over the entire region and all mapped areas have the same proportional relationship with the region on the Earth that they represent, the map is an equal-area map.（4）区域；当地图描绘整个区域和所有映射区域的区域与它们所代表的区域的区域具有相同的比例关系，地图是一个相等的区域地图。2.4 Datums and coordinate system基准和坐标系统2.4.1 Horizontal and vertical datums水平基准和高程基准A datum is the mathematical model of the Earth used to calculate the coordinates and elevations on any map, chart or survey system. Since the estimates of the Earths size were firstly made by Aristotle, hundreds of different datums have been used to frame position descriptions. But all coordinates reference to some particular set of numbers for the size and shape of the Earth. For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84). Many countries use their own local datums when they make their maps and surveys. There are two types of datums that must be considered in surveying and mapping.基准是用来计算任何地图、图表或测量系统的坐标和海拔高度的精确地球模型。因为地球的大小估计是首先由亚里 士多德，不同的基准上已用于帧位置的描述。但是所有的坐标系都参照了地球的大小和形状的特定集合。例如，全球定位系统（GPS）是基于世界大地测量系统1984（WGS-84）。许多国家利用自己的本地数据时，他们使他们的地图和调查。有两种类型的基准，必须考虑在测绘。1.Horizontal datums水平基准A horizontal datum is a surface with constant values that forms the basis for the computations of horizontal control surveys. In a horizontal datum, a reference ellipsoid is used as a mathematical approximation of the shape of the Earth.水平面是一个具有恒定值的表面，形成水平控制测量的基础。在一个水平的基准，一个参考椭球被用来作为一个数学近似的形状的地球。Five parameters are required to define a horizontal datum: two to define the dimensions of the ellipsoid, two to define the location of an initial point (origin) and one to define the orientation (i. e. , north) of the coordinate system. For example, the radius and flattening of the ellipsoid is selected for computations to determine the dimensions of the ellipsoid; the longitude and latitude of an initial point (origin) is required to determine the location and azimuth of a line (direction) is required to determine the orientation for some other surveying stations.五个参数需要定义一个水平的基准：2定义的尺寸的椭球，2个定义的初始点（原点）和一个定义的坐标系统的方向（即北）的位置。例如，选择的椭球的半径和平坦的计算，以确定的椭球的尺寸；初始点（原点）的经度和纬度，需要确定的位置和方位的线（方向）是必需的，以确定一些其他测量站的方向。A change in any of these quantities will affect every point on the datum. For this reason, while positions within a system are accurately reliable, data such as distance and azimuth derived from computations involving geodetic positions on different datums will be in error in proportion to the difference in the initial quantities. 这些量的变化会影响到数据的每一点。为此，在系统内的位置是准确可靠的数据，如距离和方位来自涉及不同的基准大地位置计算将在初始量的差异比误差。In China, Xian Geodetic Coordinate System 1980 is used as a horizontal datum in which the initial point (origin) is in Beihengliu village, Yongle town, Jingyang county, Shaanxi province. 在中国，1980西安坐标系作为水平基准的起始点（原点）是北横流村，永乐镇，陕西省泾阳县。2.Vertical datum高程基准A vertical datum is a zero surface that elevations or heights are referred to. The Geoid is an equipotential surface of the Earth gravity field that most closely approximates the mean sea surface. Every point of the geoid surface is perpendicular to the local plumb line. Therefore a natural reference for heights is measured along the plumb line. 一个垂直的基准面是一零个高度或高度的表面。大地水准面是地球重力场最接近平均海表面的等势面。大地水准面表面各点垂直于当地铅垂线。因此，一个自然的参考高度沿铅垂线测量。Heights referred to geoid are called orthometric heights, in contrast to geodetic (ellipsoidal) heights which referred the ellipsoid. Because the geoid surface can not be directly seen and the heights above or below the Geoid surface can not be actually measured, the surface must be inferred by making gravity measurements and modeling it mathematically.高度称为大地水准面称为正高，与大地（椭球）的高度参考椭球。由于大地水准面不能直接看到的高度高于或低于大地水准面不能实测，表面必须通过重力测量和建模的数学推导。For practical purpose, it is assumed that at the coastline the geoid and the Mean Sea Level (MSL) surfaces are essentially the same, nevertheless, heights measured on inland is relative to the zero height at the coast, which in effect means relative to MSL. Therefore, Mean Sea Level is used as a surface upon which the heights of features on, above or below the ground can be referenced or described. 为了实用的目的，它是假定在海岸线的大地水准面与平均海平面（MSL）然而表面基本上是相同的，在内陆高地，测量相对于零高度在海岸，这意味着相对于MSL。因此，平均海平面作为一个表面之上，上面或下面的地面上的功能的高度可以引用或描述。In China, 7 years of observations at tidal stations in Qingdao from 1950 to 1957 were reduced and adjusted to provide the Huanghai vertical datum of 1956. This datum was further refined in 1987 to reflect long periodical ocean tide change and a new national vertical datum of 1985 was provided, according to the observations at tidal stations from 1952 to 1979. The initial point (leveling origin) of Huanghai vertical datum is in Guanxiang Mountain, Qingdao city, Shandong province.在中国，7年来的观测在青岛验潮站从1950到1957分别降低和调整提供黄海1956垂直基准。根据潮汐观测站从1952到1979的观测资料，进一步提炼出1987个反映周期性变化的海洋潮汐变化和一个新的国家垂直基准面1985的数据。初始点（原点）黄海高程基准是观象山，青岛市，山东省。4.4 Trigonometric leveling三角高程4.4.1 Instruments of trigonometric leveling三角高程测量仪器Trigonometric leveling is used where complex terrain, such as mountainous areas, precludes the use of conventional differential leveling.三角高程测量是用在复杂的地形，如山区，无法使用传统的微差水准测量。The modern approach is to measure the slope distance and vertical angle to the point in question. Slope distance is measured by EDM and the vertical (or zenith) angle by theodolite or total station that integrates these two instruments into a single instrument.现代的方法是测量斜距和垂直角。斜距用电子测距测量，垂直角（天顶距）用经纬仪测量，或者将这两种仪器整合一体的全站仪测量。 Total stations contain built-in microprocessors that calculate and display the horizontal distance from the measured slope distance and vertical height. This facility has resulted in trigonometrical leveling being used for a wide variety of height measurements, including contouring.全站仪包含可以计算和显示从测得的斜距和垂距得出的水平距离的内置微处理器。该设备导致了三角高程测量被用于各种各样的高度测量，包括绘制等高线。4.4.2 Principle of trigonometric leveling三角高程测量的原理The basic principle of trigonometric leveling can be seen from Figure 4.13. When the vertical angle is measured and the horizontal distance D is used, the difference in elevation hAB between ground points A and B is thereforehAB=Dtani （4.3）where i is the vertical height of the measuring center of the instrument above A and v is the vertical height of the center of the target above B. The vertical angleis positive for angle of elevation and negative for angle of depression.从图4.13可以看出三角高程的基本原理。当垂直角用表示，水平距离用D表示，A,B两点的高程差用hAB表示，故hAB=D tani其中i表示A点上仪器中心的垂直高度，表示B点上目标中心的垂直高度。垂直角仰角为正，俯角为负。Trigonometrical leveling method of determining difference in elevation is limited to horizontal distance less than 300m, when moderate precision is sufficient and proportionately shorter distances as high precision is desired. For the distance beyond 300m the effects of curvature and refraction must be considered and applied.三角高程测量测定高差的方法在一定的精度要求下限定水平距离小于300m，短距离对应高精度。当距离超过300m时必须考虑和应用地球曲率和大气折射的影响。 4.4.3 Methods of trigonometric leveling三角高程测量方法In Figure 4.14, the prism is fixed on the handle of total station instrument with a function of automatic collimation. To eliminate the uncertainty in the curvature and refraction correction, as shown in Figure 4.15, two refitted total stations (Figure 4.14) are respectively set up at survey stations A and B. Vertical-angle observations are made at both ends of the line as close in point of time as possible. This pair of observations is termed reciprocal vertical-angle observation.在图4.14中，棱镜被固定在具有自动准直功能的全站仪的手柄上。为了消除地球曲率和大气折射修正的不可靠性，如图4.15所示，两个改装后的全站仪（如图4.14）分别安置在测站A和B，垂直角观测时两个站尽可能同时观测。这种观测被称为垂直角对向观测。 The corrected difference in elevation between the two ends of the line is the mean of the two values computed in both ways either with or without taking curvature and refraction into account.该线的两端之间的准确高差是计算这两个值的平均值，而不管是否考虑地球曲率和大气折射影响。6.1 Introduction引言Measurements are defined as observations made to determine unknown quantities. An error is the difference between a measured value for any quantity and its true value. It can be stated with absolute certainty that all measurements, no matter how carefully executed, will contain errors, and so the true value of a measurement is never known and the exact sizes of the errors present are always unknown. 测量被定义为确定未知量的观测。误差是任何数量的测量值和它的真实值之间的差值。它可以说是绝对的肯定，所有的测量，无论多么仔细地执行，将包含错误，因此真正的价值的测量是从来没有已知的错误的确切大小是永远未知。The surveying instruments and the persons using them are imperfect, the environment in which the instruments and persons operate influences the measuring process, and the behavior of people, instruments and the environment can not be fully predicted, therefore, even with the most sophisticated equipment, a measurement is only an estimate of the true size of a quantity. 测量仪器和人员使用的是不完善的，仪器和人员操作影响测量过程的环境，人、仪器和环境的行为不能完全预测，因此，即使是最先进的设备，测量也只是一个数量的真实大小的估计。However, measurements can approach their true values more closely as better equipment is developed, environmental conditions are improved and observers abilities are increased, but they can never be exact.然而，测量可以更紧密地接近他们的真实价值观，更好的设备开发，改善环境条件和观察员的能力增加，但他们永远不能准确。6.1.1 Sources of errors fall误差源The sources of errors fall into three broad categories, which are described as follows: 误差源分为三大类，具体如下：(1) Instrumental errors. They are caused by imperfections in instrument construction or adjustment. F