专业英语Unit-5.doc

哈尔滨商业大学德强商务学院信息管理专业英语哈尔滨德强商务学院-信息管理与信息系统系统的成功与失败当整个信息系统不能正常工作或者成本花费太多的话，公司可能就会认为无法从对信息系统的投资中获得收益，系统也不能如公司所想象的解决问题。因为许多信息系统都问题不断，信息系统的设计者、开发者和用户应该了解他们为什么成功还是失败。本章探讨管理者、组织者、技术因素对于信息系统成功、失败以及运行过程中应付的责任。信息系统的故障多达75%的大型系统被认为是操作失败的。尽管这些系统在生产中花费许多额外的时间和金钱来实施，仍然有许多功能不完善，使得公司无法收获预期利润。斯坦迪氏国际组织股份公司（Standish Group International，Inc.）最近做的研究发现28%的公司软件发展项目在完成前被取消，46%的项目进度落后或者超预算。许多信息系统的“失败”并不一定是瘫痪的，而是它们没有按预期的方式被使用，或者它们根本就没有被使用。使用者常常不得不开发类似的人工手动程序确保这些系统妥善地运行。在某些系统中，几乎所有提交给管理者的报告从来没有被阅读过。那些报告被认为是无用的，填满了对决策的分析和制定无用的数据。例如，分支遍及美国和欧洲各处的杰出商业银行的管理者发现大批贷款账户系统实际上是无用的。此项报告内容都是零，使得不可能实际评估顾客的贷款。贷款金额，未结余额，以及还款安排都不得不手动跟踪操作。其余自动化系统没有被触及是因为它们太难而无法被使用或者是因为它们的数据无法被信任。使用者继续手动维护他们的记录数据。例如，一个复合制造公司的员工福利部门，持续手动地为公司的2万名员工维护有利数据，尽管存在着一种退休金和生活保险救济金的自动化联机实时系统(OLRT)。用户抱怨系统中的数据是不可靠的，因为他们无法获取收购雇员的早先福利计划数据或者工资收入数额已过时。所有退休金的计算、提前退休的估价和利益分析都需要采用手工分析处理。由于处理延误，运营成本过高或者存在长期的生产问题导致许多系统的挣扎。例如，一个中型用户产品制造商的批量应收账款系统经常崩溃。产品运转在一个月内无数次异常终止，重要的是月底运营落后了近三个星期的日程安排。因为过度再运营、工作计划延迟和在固定过时的程序上耗费时间，信息系统的职员没有时间制定长期解决方案或者使其转变为在线系统。在所有的这些案例中，有问题的信息系统必然失败。为什么系统会发生故障呢？信息系统的问题领域该问题导致信息系统出现故障分为多个类别，如图5.1所示。主要的问题领域是设计、数据、成本和操作。这些问题可能不仅是由于信息系统的技术特点也是非技术性的来源。事实上，大多数的这些问题和系统故障的风险来源于组织因素。设计数据成本操作信息系统图5.1 信息系统的问题领域设计系统的精心设计未能捕获基本业务需求或提高组织绩效。无法提供足够快的信息可能是有帮助的；它在一个形式中可能无法被接受和使用；或者它可能代表错误的数据块。数据系统中有一个高水平的不准确或不一致的数据。信息在某些领域可能是错误或含糊不清的；或者适当的经营目的不能被他们打破。由于数据的不完整，对于一个特定的业务功能可能无法得到信息的需求。成本一些系统运作相当顺利，但其实施成本和在生产基础上的运行是远远超过预算。其它系统可能过于昂贵而无法完成。在这两种情况下，对于证明他们提供的信息所表现出的商业价值，过多的费用支出是不合理的。操作系统运行状况不好。因为计算机信息处理过程的操作崩溃，信息不能提供一种及时、有效的运作方式。工作中断太频繁导致过多的系统重启和延缓或者信息传递的丢失。由于响应时间太长，一个在线系统操作方式可能不当。衡量系统成功与否我们如何知道一个系统是成功的？这并不是一个容易回答的问题。不是每个人都认同特定的信息系统的价值和有效性，个人有不同的决策风格或对相同的系统可能有完全不同的看法解决问题。因而, 信息管理系统(MIS)的研究人员调查研究找出一组正式评估系统的措施。且各种标准已经得到发展，但以下阐明的系统成功的措施，被认为是最重要的。(1)通过衡量用户投票、问卷调查、或监测在线业务交易的参数, 使用高层次的系统。(2)系统的用户满意度,通过测量调查问卷或访谈。这也许包括用户在操作系统上的建议。特别关键的是管理人员对于他们的信息被需求的程度的态度，以及用户的观点是如何在系统中提高他们的工作表现。(3)用户对信息系统和信息系统工具的赞成态度。(4)通过反映系统运行能力的提高和决策导致该系统的使用，使该系统满足指定目标达到目标的程度。(5)对组织的财务收益，无论是通过降低成本还是增加销售额或利润。第五项措施被认为是有限的价值，一个信息系统带来的好处可能不是完全可量化的。此外，有利于决策支持系统应用情况的真正益处不可能轻易地被表露出来。即使成本效益法被严格地奉行，许多系统开发项目的历史表明切合实际的估计一直很难被描述出来。MIS(管理信息系统)研究人员集中倾向于人力资源和衡量成功系统组织，如信息质量、系统质量和影响组织绩效的系统。导致信息系统成功和失败的原因系统的开发首先是由于推动强大的外部环境和同样强大的内部力量或制度的力量。许多系统失败是因为环境或内部设置的相冲突。但一个系统可能会失败是有其他的原因。几项研究发现，类似的组织环境和制度特征在另外一些失败的组织中同样的方法将会成功。为什么呢？一种解释说明侧重于不同的执行模式。实施的概念组织活动的实施是指所有的工作选择、管理和创新方法的一种常规化，表5.1说明了主要实施阶段中所描述的研究文献和主要问题的方法。表5.1 文献的实施阶段和方法方法实施的阶段选择管理常规化行动者角色策略组织要素xs表明实施阶段侧重于不同的方法。例如，使用一个角色作用方式的实施文献往往侧重于早期阶段的应用与管理。实施导致的成功和失败到目前为止, 研究发现没有一种单一地解释系统实施成功或失败的原因，也不能为系统的成功设定一个单一的公式。然而，发现执行结果可以在很大程度上取决于以下几个因素： 用户在实施过程中的角色 实施工作中管理部门的支持程度 实施方案的复杂度和风险水平 质量管理的实施过程这些主要行为和组织方面的问题, 在图5.2中有说明。实施的成果/结果用户的参与和作用管理部门的支持项目复杂度/风险度的级别管理部门的实施过程设计成本操作数据图5.2 导致信息系统成败的因素实施结果在很大程度上取决于使用者的作用；管理部门支持的程度；实施项目的风险水平和复杂性；以及质量管理的实施过程。在信息系统成功或失败的证据中可以发现的领域是设计、成本、运营或数据。实施的过程：哪里会出现问题？以下的几个问题被认为是典型的系统开发的各阶段在执行过程中的管理不善。分析阶段 研究时间、金钱和资源尚未分配的问题。 很少或者根本没有时间花在初步规划上。 项目组成员配备不合理。 信息服务人员所承诺的结果无法兑现。 需求是来源于文件不充分的现有系统或调查结果不完整的系统活动。 用户拒绝花任何时间来帮助项目组采集一些必要的信息。 项目分析不能合理地面向用户。设计阶段 用户没有责任或不参与设计阶段的活动。 该系统的设计仅仅满足于目前的需求。而没有灵活地预测出未来被需求的系统。 编制程序的急剧变化或人员配备的计划没有被任何组织影响分析。 功能说明书是不充分的文件。编程阶段 低估了软件开发所需的大量时间和金钱。 程序设计师们提供了不完整的产品说明书。 过多的时间都浪费在编写代码上以至没有足够的时间致力于开发程序的逻辑性。 程序员没有有效地利用结构设计或面向对象的技术，使得他们编写的程序难以调试和维护。 程序文件没有充分地被记载。 必不可少的资源（例如计算机时间）没有被列入计划。测试阶段 在适当的测试阶段低估了所需的大量时间和金钱。 项目组的开发没有制定一个有组织的测试计划。 使用者没有充分地参与到测试的过程中。 执行团队没有合理地开展管理部门验收测试的审查。升级/维护阶段 没有足够的时间和金钱被作为升级活动的预算，尤其是对于数据的转化。 并非所有个人都将使用该系统直到系统转换开始。培训只是在系统被安装时才开始。 系统运行之前已经做好了充分的准备来补偿费用的超支以及延误。 系统和用户的文件不充足。 不能进行绩效评估。 对于系统维护规定的条款是不充分的。培训不恰当的私人信息系统来支持这个系统以及进行维修更换。参考文献Kenneth CLaudon，Jane PLaudonEssentials of Management Information Systems（Sixth Edition）Pearson，2005，pp400-404（肯尼思 C. 劳顿，简 P. 劳顿。管理信息系统的基本要素(第六版)。皮尔森，2005，pp.400- 404。）systems success and failureWhen information systems fail to work properly or cost too much to develop, companies may not realize any benefits from their information systems investment, and the system may not be able to solve the problems for which it was intend. Because so many information systems are trouble-ridden, designers, builders, and users of information systems should understand how and why they succeed or fail. This chapter explores the managerial, organizational, and technological factors responsible for information systems success and failure and examines the process of system implementation.Information System FailureAs many as 75 percent of all large systems many be considered to be operating failures. Although these systems are in production, they take so much extra time and money to implement or are so functionally deficient that businesses cant reap the expected benefits. A recent study by Standish Group International, Inc. found that 28 percent of corporate software development projects were canceled before completion and 46 percent were behind schedule or over budget.Many information system “failures” are not necessarily falling apart, but either they clearly are not used in the way they were intended, or they are not used at all. Users often have to develop parallel manual procedures to make these systems work properly.In some systems, nearly all reports put out for management are never read. They are considered worthless and full of figures of no consequence for decision making or analysis. For instance, managers in a prominent commercial bank with branches throughout the United States and Europe found its batch loan account system virtually useless. Pages of reports were filled with zeros, making it practically impossible to assess the status of a clients loan.The amount of the loan, the outstanding balance, and the repayment schedule had to be tracked manually.Other automated systems go untouched because they are too difficult to use or because their data cannot be trusted. Users continue to maintain their records manually. For example, the employee benefits department of a multiunit manufacturing concern continues to maintain all the benefits data for the companys 20000 employees manually, despite the presence of an automated, on-line real time (OLRT) system for pension and life insurance benefits. Users complain that the data in the system are unreliable because they do not capture the prior benefits plan data for employees from acquisitions and because payroll earnings figures are out of data. All pension calculations, preretirement estimates, and benefits analysis must be handled manually.6 Still other systems flounder because of processing delays, excessive operational costs, or chronic production problems. For instance, the batch accounts receivable system of a medium-size consumer products manufacturer was constantly breaking down. Production runs were aborting several times a month, and major month-end runs were close to three weeks behind schedule. Because of excessive reruns, schedule delays, and time devoted to fixing antiquated programs, the information systems staff had no time to work out long-term solutions or convert to an on-line system.7 In all of these cases, the information systems in question must be failures. Why do system failures occur?Information System Problem Areas8 The problems causing information system failure fall into multiple categories, as illustrated by Figure 5.1. The major problem areas are design, data, cost, and operations. These problems can be attributed not only to technical features of information systems but to nontechnical sources as well. In fact, most of these problems and risks of system failure stem from organizational factors.Design9 The actual design of the system fails to capture essential business requirements or improve organizational performance. Information may not be provided quickly enough to be helpful; it may be in a format that is impossible to digest and use; or it may represent the wrong pieces of data.Data 10 The data in the system have a high level of inaccuracy or inconsistency. The information in certain fields may be erroneous or ambiguous; or they may not be broken out properly for business purpose. Information required for a specific business function may be inaccessible because the data are incomplete.Cost11 Some systems operate quite smoothly, but their cost to implement and run on a production basis is way over budget. Other systems may be too costly to compete. In both cases, the excessive expenditures cannot be justified by the demonstrated business value of the information they provide.Operations12 The system does not run well. Information is not provided in a timely and efficient manner because the computer operations that handle information processing break down. Jobs that abort too often lead to excessive rerun and delayed or missed schedules for delivery of information . An on-line system may be operationally inadequate because the response time is too long.Measuring System Success13 How can we tell whether a system is successful? This is not always an easy question to answer. Not everyone may agree about the value and effectiveness of a particular information system. Individuals with different decision-making styles or ways of approaching a problem may have totally different opinions about the same system.14 Nevertheless, MIS researchers have looked for a formal set of measures for rating systems. Various criteria have been developed, but the following measures of system success, illustrated in figure, are considered the most important.(1)High levels of system use, as measured by polling users, employing questionnaires, or monitoring parameters such as the volume of on-line transactions.(2)User satisfaction with the system, as measured by questionnaires or interviews. This might include users opinions on the schedule of operations. Especially critical are managers attitudes on how well their information needs were satisfied and users opinions about how well the system enhanced their job performace.(3)Favorable attitudes of users about information systems and information systems staff.(4)Achieved objectives the extent to which the system meets its specified goals, as reflected by improved organizational performance and decision making resulting from using the system.(5)Financial payoff to the organization, either by reducing costs or by increasing sales or profits.15 The fifth measure is considered to be of limitde value. The benefits of an information system may not be totally quantifiable. Moreover, tangible benefits cannot be easily demonstrated for the more advanced decision-support system application. And even though cost-benefit methodology has been rigorously pursued, the history of many systems development projects has shown that realistic estimates have always been difficult to formulate. MIS researchers have preferred to concentrate instead on the human and organizational measures of system success such as information quality, system quality, and the impact of systems on organizational performance.Causes of Information System Success and Failure16 Systems are developed in the first place because of powerful external environmental forces and equally powerful internal or institutional forces. Many systems fail because of the opposition of either the environment or the internal setting.17 But there are other reasons why a system may fail. Several studies have found that in organizations with similar environments and institutional features, the same innovation will be successful in some organizations but fail in others. Why? One explanation focuses on different patterns of implementation.The Concept of Implementation18 Implementation refers to all organizational activities working toward the adoption, management, and routinization of an innovation, Table 5.1 illustrates the major stages of implementation described in research literature and the major approaches to the subject.19 The xs indicate the stages of the implementation on which the different approaches tend to focus. For instance, literature that uses an actorrole approach to implementation tends to focus on early stages of adoption and management.Causes of Implementation Success and Failure20 Implementation research to date has found no single explanation for system success or failure. Nor does it suggest a single formula for system success. However, it has found that implementation outcome can be largely determined by the following factors:l The role of user in the implementation processl The degree of management support for the implementation effortl The level of complexity and risk of the implementation projectl The quality of management of the implementation process21 These are largely behavioral and organizational issues and are illustrated in Figure 5.2.22 he implementation outcome can be largely determined by the role of users; the degree of management support; the level of risk and complexity in the implementation project; and the quality of the management of the implementation process. Evidence of success or failure can be found in the areas of design, cost, operations, or data of the information system.The Implementation Process: What Can Go Wrong?23 The following problems are considered typical for each stage of systems development when the implementation process is poorly managed.Analysisl Time, money, and resources have not been allocated to researching the problem.l Little or no time is spent in preliminary planning.l The project team is not properly staffed.l The information services staff promises results that are impossible to deliver.l Requirements are derived from inadequate documentation of existing systems or incomplete findings form systems study activities.l Users refuse to spend any time helping the project team gather the requisite information.l Project analysis cannot interview users properly.Designl Users have no responsibility for or are not input to design activities.l The system is designed only to serve current needs. No flexibility has been built in to anticipate the future needs of the organization.l Drastic changes in clerical procedures or staffing are planned without any organization impact analysis.l Functional specifications are inadequately documented.P