同等学力申硕英语考试

Paragraphs I. What is a good, effective paragraph? Unified-all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic. Coherent-it develops naturally and smoothly, with one sentence leading to another logically. Well-developed-it fulfills what it sets out to say. 1. Paragraph Unity Unity is concerned with the content of a paragraph. A unified paragraph discusses only one topic or one aspect of a topic. Only one central idea or theme it may have. Topic Sentence Unity Unity Unity Coherent Coherent When a new idea is generated, a new paragraph must begin. Sample 1 We Americans are incredibly lazy. Instead of cooking a simple, nourishing meal, we pop frozen dinner into the oven. Instead of studying a daily newspaper, we are contented with the capsule summaries on the network news. Worst of all, instead of walking even a few blocks to the local convenience store, we jump into our cars. Sample 2 When people sit down to eat, they unconsciously reveal their personal habits. The color of the food that they order indicates their tastes. For instance, a person who orders red, yellow, and orange foods usually wears brightly colored clothes and lives in an apartment decorated in lively colors. The texture of the food gives clues to the way that people deal with life situations. The diner who prefers such crunchy foods as crackers probably meets the day-to-day conflicts head-on while the diner who orders soft creamy foods will go to almost any length to avoid conflicts. Finally, the manner in which people eat their meals reveals their work habits. Those that eat all of their food at the same time probably have four or five things going on; those that finish one dish before beginning another one may be capable of handling only one project at a time. Topic Sentence A topic sentence will help you focus on your subject, but if it is expressed in terms that are too general, it will be less likely to help you achieve unity. Marriage for couples under twenty is foolish. Married couples under twenty have more problems than those over twenty. Taking a course in English composition is beneficial. Taking a course in English composition is beneficial at least in three ways. College students could make better use of their leisure time. College students could make better use of their leisure time by cultivating one or two hobbies. 2. Paragraph Coherence Ways to achieve coherence: Using parallel structures Repeating words or word groups Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences Using transitional expressions Sample 1 Americans are queer people: they cant play. They rush to work as soon as they grow up. They want their work as soon as they wake. They used to open their offices at ten oclock; then at nine; then at eight; then at seven. Now they never shut them. Sample 2 People differ from one another; they have different likes and dislikes; they have their own interests and way of doing things. Yet they all need to get along with someone well. Sometimes they need to work with someone; sometimes they need to live with someone; and sometimes they need to play with someone. Whatever they do, they are not doing it all themselves. Sample 3 Unlike oral English, written English is comparatively formal. It requires good spelling and perfect grammar. Poor spelling and too many grammatical mistakes will put readers in a puzzling difficulty. They would be confused about what writers are getting at. In addition, once the words are printed on the paper and handed to whomever the person concerned, writers can no longer make any changes. To avoid this one has to pay much attention to spelling, practice grammar and write clearly-constructed paragraphs. As a result, it will take longer and much more efforts to communicate in written English than in oral English. 3. Paragraph Development Development in chronologic order Development in spatial order Development in order of importance Development by comparison and contrast Development by cause-and-effect analysis Development by illustration or examples Development by classification Chronologic Order One of the simplest ways of arranging details in a paragraph is to put them in time order or in chronological sequencing. first.; then; next; before; after; finally not.until; until after; Spatial order Seating myself in the back desk on the row next to the door, I decided that this English classroom was just like every other English classroom. The front portion of the room contained the expected classroom items. At the front was a drab green chalkboard covered with white and yellow markings. To the left of the board was a dictionary stand that held a very thick dictionary. Directly in front of the board was the instructors large impressive desk. The sides of the room resembled those of an ordinary classroom. Six windows were located along the left wall. They were covered by dusty broken blinds. Nothing was unusual about the middle of the room. Student desks were neatly arranged in six rows of eight desks each. I was sitting in the eighth desk on the first row As the bell sounded and the instructor walked in, I concluded that we were going to have an ordinary English class in an ordinary classroom Order of importance Since I began living in an apartment and going to school, my biggest problem has been the housework. Cleaning the apartment is not too bad; although it takes time away from my studies; at least when I finish the apartment looks nice. Cooking my food is a bigger problem. I have never had to cook before, and usually the results are discouraging. Sometimes the food is burned, sometimes it is not cooked enough, and sometimes I have not measured correctly, so the food tastes terrible. Shopping for my food is more difficult because I dont know the English names of many foods, and often I have to spend extra time asking for help. The worst problem is doing my laundry. The Laundromat is far from my apartment, and I waste much valuable time. I also have trouble with the complicated instructions, so occasionally I end up with pink socks or a shirt that is too small. Mostly I am embarrassed as I sit in the Laundromat with all the women, and so I wait until all my clothes are dirty before I do this horrible task. Comparison and Contrast Groups are as good or bad as the individuals who make them up. Crowds, on the other hand, are entirely different from their individual members. While groups can act intelligently and exercise a sense of responsibility, crowds are chaotic and incapable of intelligent actions. Men and women in a group can think; those in a crowd lose all their rationality. Crowds, unlike groups, are subject to herd-poisoning. Cause-and-Effect Analysis 1. Cause to effect People tend to learn in different ways. Some are very analytical and need a rule for everything. Others are more intuitive; they prefer to gather examples and imitate them. Some need lots of repetition, while others require less. In a classroom situation, the teacher cannot tailor the approach to each individual student. Therefore, you cannot always rely on your teacher to provide you with an approach that is particularly designed for you. You need to experiment in order to discover what works best. 2. Effect to causes For over twenty years, from the 1960s to the 1980s, the college board scores of high school seniors steadily declined. This decline began soon after television became popular, and therefore many people concluded that the two events were connected. But many other elements might also have contributed to the lowering of test scores. During the same period, for example, many schools reduced the number of required courses and de-emphasized traditional subjects and skills, such as reading. Furthermore, during the 1960s and 1970s, many colleges changed their policies and admitted students who previously would not have qualified. These new admission standards encouraged students who would not have taken college boards in earlier years to take the tests. Therefore, the scores may have been lower because they now measured the top third of high school seniors rather than the top fifth. 3. Cause to effects Watching television may have made those same students better observers and listeners, even if they did less well on standardized written tests. It may have given them a national or even international outlook instead of a narrow interest in local affairs. In other words, even if watching television may have limited people in some ways, it may have broadened them in others. 4. Causal Chain As the public becomes more aware of the nature of alcoholism, the social disreputation attached to it decreases; alcoholics and their families tend to conceal it less, and diagnosis is not delayed as long. Earlier treatment has led to encouragingly high recovery rates. Your boss has a bigger vocabulary than you have. Thats one good reason why he is your boss. But if you can consciously increase your vocabulary you will unconsciously raise yourself to a more important station in your life, and the new and higher position you have won will, in turn, give you a better opportunity for further enriching your vocabulary. It is a beautiful and successful cycle. More often than not, you would find people live to celebrate their 100th birthday, and it is not unusual to see people aged 100 to 140 work in the fields with their great-great-grandchildren. What accounts for this ability to survive to such an old age, and to survive so well? First of all, physical work may be taken as one of the major reasons. Secondly, the environment they are living in should never be ignored as a key factor. Another factor that may contribute to their longevity may be found in their freedom from mental pressures. Inherited or generic factors may also play a role in the case. Apart from that, their daily diets should also be taken into account when we are trying to trace the reasons for the longevity. Finally, being optimistic can also make the difference between longer and shorter lives. Useful Words and Expressions Adverbs: therefore as a result consequently thus hence because because of accordingly for this reason Verbs: cause result in result from lead to contribute to give rise to exist in lie in account for be attributed to be responsible for Preps: owing to due to on account of as a result of thanks to Structures: It is not that but that. It is more because of A than because of B What is that Illustration or Exemplification Sample 1 Defining the problem is easier than providing the solution. One can suggest that students should spend two or three years in an English speaking country, which amounts to washing ones hands of them. Few students have the time or money to do that. It is often said that wide reading is the best alternative course of action but even here it is necessary to make some kind of selection. Sample 2 There are two ways in which one can own a book. The first is the property right you establish by paying for it, just as you pay for clothes and furniture. But this act of purchase is only the prelude to possession. Full ownership comes only when you have made it a part of yourself, and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by writing in it. An illustration may make the point clear. You buy a beefsteak and transfer it from the butchers icebox to your own. But you do not own the beefsteak in the most important sense until you consume it and get it into your bloodstream. Sample 3 All progress, all development come from challenge and a consequent response. Without challenge there is no response, no development, and no freedom. Michelangelo did not learn to paint by spending his time doodling. Mozart was not an accomplished pianist at the age of eight as the result of spending his days in front of a television set. Like Eve Curie, like Helen Keller, they responded to the challenge of their lives by a disciplined training: and they gained a new freedom. Useful Words and Expressions For example, ., for example, . For instance, ., for instance, . A typical example is A frequently cited example is that. Takefor example. Take for example A case in point is. is a good case in point. may serve as a good case in point. A good case in point could be found in. may well illustrate this point. This point may well be illustrated by Division and Classification Sample 1 Sales correspondence falls into 3 categories. Firstly, there are direct-mail or e-mail letters, which are the most common types of sales correspondence. Secondly,