国际法条约和其他法律渊源对於使用武力设立了很多限制.ppt

1、1,Treaties and other sources of IL impose so many restrictions on use of force that it is generally illegal 國際法條約和其他法律淵源對於使用武力設立了很多限制, 在一般情況下使用武力是不合法的 Most armed conflicts are now civil and not international wars 大部分武裝衝突是國內而不是國際戰爭,The Use of Force 武力運用,2,St. Augustine (4th C.) set out doctrine of ju

2、st wars聖奧斯丁四世紀主張正義戰爭論1. Just war waged against party that has caused injury and refuses to make amends正義戰爭反擊造成了傷害和拒絕改正的一方2. Just war is to only be punitive; when wrong is righted, war must end正義戰爭只是懲罰性的，當錯誤得到糾正，戰爭必須停止St. Thomas Acquinas (13th C.) held that is wrongdoer, not wrongdoing that is to pun

3、ished托马斯阿奎那十三世紀認為受到懲罰的應該是錯者而不是錯行本身,3,War could go on after wrong is righted, until wrongdoer repents戰爭可在錯誤糾正之後繼續，直至錯者悔改Just war is waged by sovereign, punishes the wrongdoer and is motivated by good intentions正義戰爭由主權出於善意而發動，用於懲罰錯者 In Renaissance, thinkers urged that negotiations precede resort to fo

4、rce在文藝復興時期，思想家要求訴諸武力之前要進行談判Vitoria argued that not every wrong is sufficient cause for war維多利亞認為並不是每個錯誤都是發動戰爭的充分原因,4,Suarez held that wronged state must first demand reparatationsSuarez說受犯國必須首先要求賠償Innocent parties should be immune from attack無辜者應該免受攻擊Only proportionate force should be used只可酌量使用武力,5

5、,Grotius said just wars involve格老秀斯說正義戰爭包括1. self-defense自衛2. protection of property財產保護3.punishment for those who have harmed other states citizens懲罰那些傷害其他國家公民的人Neutrality to be determined not by states morality, but by whether there was actual state of war中立不是決定於國家的德性，而是是否真正存在戰爭狀態,6,Later, states

6、adopted some other means to show displeasure, e.g.後來，國家採納了一些其他方法來表示不快 例如1. suspension of diplomatic relations外交關係的中止2. withdrawal from treaty撤銷條約3. cancellation of membership in international organization取消國際組織的成員身份4. economic boycott經濟制裁,7,After World War I, disputes were supposed to be submitted t

7、o arbitration, judicial settlement or inquiry by League第一次世界大戰後，認為爭議應當通過仲裁、 司法或國際聯盟調查等途徑來處理States were supposed to refrain from war for three months after arbitration, settlement or report 國家在仲裁、司法或調查報告之後三個月内應當克制戰爭1928 General Treaty for the Renunciation of War (Kellogg-Briand Pact)1928年非戰公約(白裏安-凱洛哥

8、公約),8,Article 2(4) of United Nations Charter: states are to refrain from threat or use of force against territorial integrity or independence of other states聯合國憲章第2條第4項規定：國家不應當運用武力或以武力相威脅，破壞其它國家的領土完整或獨立Still many question of when force can be legally used武力何時可以合法地使用存在很多爭議For example, is “economic fo

9、rce” lawful?舉例，經濟武力是否合法What is force used against territorial integrity, etc.?什麼是破壞領土完整的武力等,9,There are some lawful uses of force有一些合法的武力運用Retortion: retaliation for a noxious act by a noxious act, for example反報：例如以惡治惡1. severing of diplomatic relationsas retaliation終止外交關係以作報復2. restrictions on move

10、ments with State A of citizens of State B限制國家乙國民在國家甲的活動3.suspension of foreign aid as retaliation for nationalizations停止外國援助以報復國有化,10,4.non-economic boycotts, e.g. Olympic boycotts of 1980, 1984 非經濟制裁，例如1980年和1984年的奧林匹克聯合抵制5. trade restrictions by A, following trade restrictions by B國家甲的貿易限制引發國家乙的貿易

11、限制Reprisal: normally illegal act of State B, when done in retaliation for illegal act of State A, becomes legal報復：一般來說，國家乙以不法行為回應國家甲的不法行為，便會視為合法,11,Olympic boycotts,12,Retorsion involves normally legal acts; reprisal involves normally illegal acts通常説來，反報涉及到合法行為；報復涉及到不法行為Reprisal, unlike war, is limi

12、ted interference by one state with rights of another state不同于戰爭，報復是一個國家有權對另一國家進行有限干預。In Nalilaa Incident Arbitration (1928), German forces in Africa raided Portugese colony of Angola in retaliation for mistaken killing of Germans there. Portugal demanded compensation.在Nalilaa事件仲裁案中(1928)，為報復德人被誤殺，德國

13、在非洲的軍隊侵略在安高拉的葡國殖民地。葡國要求賠償,13,Tribunal held that before reprisal法庭認為報復前1. must be previous unlawful act 必須發生了不法行為2. must be unsatisfied demand for compensation必須是不滿意賠償3. reprisal must be carried out in proportion to offence.報復必須與受侵犯比例相符Under Article 2(4) of UN Charter, reprisals with force law only i

14、f carried out as self-defense根據聯合國憲章第2條第4項，有效武力報仇只可以在自衛的情況下運用,14,Some scholars say reprisal only lawful if motivated by desire to end unlawful conduct of other state一些學者說報復只有以終止其他國家的不法行動為動機才算是合法Reprisals now often carried out through economic means: embargos, boycotts, freezing of assets, export-imp

15、ort controls.現在報復經常是透過經濟途徑：禁運、抵制購買、 凍結財產、出入口管制Pacific blockade to coerce state對專制國家進行和平封鎖,15,Pacific blockade can be undertaken only against ships of blockaded state; can be specific (Cuba) or general (Iraq)和平封鎖只可用來對待被封鎖國的船隻； 可以是特定的古巴或一般的伊拉克Self-defense available where unlawful act committed by othe

16、r side or (maybe) where lawful act of State B would ruin State A自衛發生於當另一方做了不法行動或（也許）國家乙的合法行為將會損害國家甲的時候Difference between self-defense and retorsion and reprisal:自衛和反報與報復的分別在於,16,Retorsion and reprisal can involve act not directly related to act of offending state反報與報復可涉及與侵犯國行為無直接關係的行為Self defense ai

17、ms directly against interference of another state自衛是針對另一國家的直接干擾Caroline incident (1837) set ruleCaroline事件(1837)設立了規則British forces enter US and destroy ship after it is used by Americans to raid Canada軍艦被美國人用來襲擊加拿大之後，英國軍隊進入美國將其擊毀,17,US complained. Said美國投訴說1. right of self-defense must be in respon

18、se to act that is immediate and overwhelming, leaving no other choice自衛必須用於回應迅速而毀滅性的行為，此外別無選擇2. action in self-defense must not be excessive自衛的行動不可過份Article 51 of UN Charter allows self-defense if armed attack occurs聯合國憲章第51條容許在面對武裝攻擊時自衛,18,Still unclear, however:但是依然含糊不清：1. what kind of actions all

19、ow for self-defense哪些類型的行動容許自衛？2. what kind of rights states can defend國家可以捍衛哪些權利？3. how much force is proportional多少武力才是合乎比例？4. time of defense in retaliation報復中自衛的時間,19,Question of pre-emptive self-defense especially difficult先發制人的自衛問題更難界定In Nicaragua Case (ICJ 1986) took up this question of wheth

20、er State A can launch war in anticipation of aggression by State B在尼加拉瓜案國際法院1986年中，提出了這樣的問題，即國家甲可否因預計將受到國家乙侵略而發動戰爭US had mined Nicaraguas harbors supposedly to prevent Nicaragua from supplying El Salvador rebels美國損毀尼加拉瓜的港口, 以防尼加拉瓜支持薩爾瓦多的叛亂者,20,Nicaragua Harbor,21,Court held: not pre-emptive self-def

21、ense because no imminent threat of attack on El Salvador, let alone on US法庭認為：這並非先發制人的自衛，因為薩爾瓦多並沒有即將受到叛亂者的攻擊威脅，美國更加沒有受到威脅Question of whether state may use force to protect nationals and property abroad究竟國家可否使用武力保護海外國民和財產,22,Before World War II, 第二次世界大戰前1. war was a conflict between two or more state

22、s using armies戰爭是兩國或多國之间使用軍隊的衝突2. war had as its purpose, one side vanquishing the other and imposing terms of peace.如同其目標，戰爭中一方摧毀了另一方並強加和平條款3. war was what followed a declaration of war戰爭發生在宣戰以後Since World War II, however, no declarations of war自第二次大戰，便再沒有宣戰了,23,Question whether war is an action or

23、 a status問題是究竟戰爭是一個行動或是一种狀態As an action, war ends when states no longer fight如果是一個行動，戰爭在國家不再戰鬥時結束Kawaski case (UK 1938) considered word “war” in shipping contractKawaski案1938考慮了船約中的戰爭 Held: UK ship did not have to carry cargo to China after Japanese invasion, even though Japan didnt declare war判決認為：

24、英國船隻在日本侵華後不須再運貨到中國，即使日本沒有宣戰,24,If war is an action, then its existence depends on:如果戰爭是一個行動，它的存在視乎：1. dimensions of conflict爭執的層面2. intention of contestants參戰者的目的3. attitude of non-contestants非參戰者的態度War as status shown by continued state of war between Japan and Russia日俄之間持续的戰爭表明了戰爭是一種狀態,25,Question

25、 if war must involve force問題是戰爭是否必須使用武力Half of countries that declared war during WWII never fought一半在第二次世界大戰中宣戰的國家从来没有參與戰鬥Study armed conflict, not war now現在研究的是武裝衝突，而不是戰爭Formerly, colonial powers could use force to crush independence struggles; now states cannot早前，殖民勢力可使用武力粉碎爭取獨立的抗争；現在的國家不可以,26,Bu

26、t can people seeking self-determination lawfully use force?但人們可否合法使用武力尋求自決Under 1977 Additional Protocol, Geneva Convention of 1949, protecting prisoners of war and civilians in wartime applies to some self-determination armed struggles根據1949年日內瓦公約的附加議定書 (1977年)，保護戰時的戰犯和平民適用於一些尋求自決的武裝抗爭Question whet

27、her 3d party can help people fighting for self-determination問題是第三者可否幫助人們爭取自決,27,Some UN resolutions have said so; some scholars argue that aid can only be provided to established government against rebels 一些聯合國決議允許這樣；有些學者认为援助只應提供給现存政府用以鎮壓叛亂Under Geneva Convention of 1949, enemy national can usually

28、leave territory of a state at war根據1949年日內瓦公約 ，敵國國民通常可以離開处于戰爭的國家Only can intern enemy nationals只可拘留敵國公民During war, aliens are enemies on basis of nationality, not residence在戰爭時期，敵人是依國藉而非居留地定义的外国人,28,But, as to corporations, may have enemy character if those who control it reside in enemy country但是，就

29、團體來說，便因其領導人居住於敵國可能具有敵人特征State may, within its territory, confiscate movable property of government of enemy state 國家可能在其領土內沒收敵國政府的動產Immovable state property can be used, but not confiscated敵國的不動產可被使用，但不可被沒收Private property in occupied territory may be sequestered, but not confiscated.私產在被佔據國家的領土內可被扣

30、押，但不是被沒收,29,Must only be taken for military use必只可用作軍事用途When armed conflict starts, some treaties between warring states nulled; some are suspended; some remain in force 當武裝衝突開始，一些戰爭國之間的條約會無效、一些會被暫緩、一些則仍有效subjective test of intention of parties toward treaties during war在戰爭時，對締約國條約意向的主觀性測試,30,object

31、ive test: compatibility of treaty with wartime客觀測試：條約和戰時的兼容性1. treaties of alliance abrogated聯盟條約的終止2. treaties fixing boundaries or on conduct of war remaining in force劃定邊界或戰爭操守的條約仍然生效3. treaties on health, drugs, industrial property, extradition, etc. are suspended有關健康、藥品、工業資產和引渡等的條約被中止,31,Two kin

32、ds of combatants兩種的戰鬥者1. Lawful - may be killed, wounded, captured.合法的可能被殺、被傷、被俘獲Spies can be shot間諜可能被槍殺2. Unlawful - e.g. murderers, traitors and mercenaries may be punished by military tribunal不合法的例如謀殺者、叛徒和外國僱傭兵可能被軍事法院懲罰Merchant seamen can be attacked; civilians working in military factories can

33、be bombed商人海員可能被襲击；在軍工廠工作的平民可能被轟炸,32,Hague Convention of 1907 held that only military objectives can be bombed 1907年海牙公約認為只有軍事目標才可以被轟炸Also banned using poisons in war同時亦禁止在戰爭中使用毒藥Geneva Convention of 1949 called for hospital, safety and netural zones for sick, aged, children, wounded, civilians gene

34、rally 1949年日內瓦公約要求設立醫院、安全的中立區給病人、老人、兒童、傷者和一般百姓Many anti-nuclear weapons treaties, multilateral and bi-lateral 有很多反核武器條約，包括多邊的和雙邊的,33,Humanitarian law binding on individuals, including civilian leaders人道主義法律對包括平民領袖在內的個人都有約束力International Law Commission has Draft Code of Offences Against Peace and Sec

35、urity of Mankind (1954)國際法委員會制定了危害人類和平及安全治罪法草案 （1954年）UN treaty calls for no statute of limitations on war crimes charges聯合國條約要求對戰爭罪行控訴沒有限制法規Order of superiors or obedience to national law no defense to war crimes charges, if moral choice was possible如果可能存在道德選擇，上級的命令或對國内法的服從都不能成为免受戰爭罪行指控的理由,34,Yamas

36、hita Case - failure to control subordinates equivalent to consent to their war crimesYamashita案未能成功控制下屬等于默許他們的戰爭罪行Under Hague Convention, if state violates laws of war, it must pay compensation根據海牙公約，如果國家違反戰爭法律，它必須要作出賠償 treat rebels as criminals将背叛者作為罪犯 But if rebels treated as insurgents, have prot

37、ection of humanitarian law但是如果背叛者被待作造反者，便會有人道主義法律作保護,35,Hostages may still be taken in war在戰爭中可能有人質Under Geneva Convention, humanitarian law applied to armed resistance groups, militias and other irregulars if they are根據日內瓦公約，人道主義法律適用於武裝反抗組織、國民自衛隊和其他非正規軍，如果他们1. commanded by responsible person由富責任感的人

38、負責指揮2. have fixed sign有既定標符3. carry arms openly公開攜帶武器4. fight according to laws of war依戰爭法而作戰,36,Under 1977 Protocol, humanitarian law applied to armed forces in organized units under effective command that apply laws of war根據1977年議定書，人道主義法律適用於採用戰爭法、受有效指挥的、有組織的武裝部隊Combatants must distinguish their d

39、ress from civilians during military operations or at least openly carry arms during battle戰士在軍事行動中必須在衣飾上與平民相區別出來或最少在戰爭時明顯地佩帶武器POWs protected from violence, intimidation, insults and public curiosityPOWs受保護以免於暴力、恐嚇、誨辱和公眾好奇,37,POWs need only tell name, rank, serial numberPOWs祗需識別姓名、級別、編號Cultural objects and places of worship protected under Hague Convent