创新大学英语综合教程U2电子教案

UnitTwoLookUpattheStarsSuggestedTeachingStepsLead-inTextAWord&SentenceStudyStructureStudyAfter-readingAdditionalMaterialsLead-inDirections:Pleasewatchthevideoclipandanswerthequestions.l.whowasthespeaker?whatdoyouknowabouthim?2.Accordingtothespeaker,whataretheambitiousexperimentsplannedforthefuture?Tips:StephenHawking(l942—20l8)wastheformerLucasianProfessorofMathematicsattheUniversityofCambridgeandauthorofABriefHisloryofTimewhichisaninternationalbestseller.Wewillmapthepositionsofbillionsofgalaxies,betterunderstandourplaceintheuniverse,andcontinuetoexplorespace.TextATheUniverseGivesupItsDeepestsecret0neofthegreatestmysteriesoftheuniverseisabouttobeunraveledwiththefirstdetailed,threedimensionalmapofdarkmatter—theinvisiblematerialthatmakesupmostofthecosmos.Astronomersannouncedyesterdaythattheyhaveachievedtheapparentlyimpossibletaskofcreatingapictureofsomethingthathasdefiedeveryattempttodetectitsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulatedinl933.Scientistshaveknownformanyyearsthatthereismoretotheuniversethancanbeseenordetectedthroughtheirtelescopesbutitisonlynowthattheyhavebeenabletocapturethefirstsignificant3Dimageofthisotherwiseinvisiblematerial.Unliketheordinarymatteroftheplanets,starsandgalaxies,whichcanbeseenthroughtelescopesordetectedbyscientificinstruments,nobodyhasseendarkmatterorknowswhatitismadeof,thoughcalculationssuggestthatitisatleastsixtimesbiggerthantherestofthevisibleuniversecombined.Ateamof70astronomersfromEurope,AmericaandJapanusedtheHubbleSpaceTelescopetobuildupapictureofdarkmatterinavastregionofspacewheresomeofthegalaxiesdatebacktohalftheageoftheuniverse—nearly7billionyears.Theyusedaphenomenonknownasgravitationallensing,firstpredictedbyAlbertEinstein,toinvestigateanareaoftheskyninetimesthesizeofafullmoon.Gravitationallensingoccurswhenlightfromdistantgalaxiesisbentbythegravitationalinfluenceofanymatterthatitpassesonitsjourneythroughspace.Thescientistswereabletoexploitthetechniquebycollectingthedistortedlightfromhalfamillionfarawaygalaxiestoreconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniversewhichisotherwiseinvisibletoconventionaltelescopes.“Wehave,forthefirsttime,mappedthelarge-scaledistributionofdarkmatterintheuniverse,”theleadingscientistsaid.“Darkmatterisamysteriousandinvisibleformofmatter,aboutwhichweknowverylittle,yetitdominatesthemassoftheuniverse.”Oneofthemostimportantdiscoveriestoemergefromthestudyisthatdarkmatterappearstoformaninvisiblescaffoldorskeletonaroundwhichthevisibleuniversehasformed.Althoughcosmologistshavetheorizedthatthiswouldbethecase,thefindingsaredramaticproofthattheircalculationsarecorrectandthat,withoutdarkmatter,theknownuniversethatwecanseewouldnotbeabletoexist.“Afilamentarywebofdarkmatteristhreadedthroughtheentireuniverse,andactsasscaffoldingwithinwhichtheordinarymatter—includingstars,galaxiesandplanets—canlaterbebuilt,”theleadingscientistsaid.“Themostsurprisingaspectofourmapishowunsurprisingitis.Overall,weseemtounderstandreallywellwhathappensduringtheformationofstructureandtheevolutionoftheuniverse,”hesaid.Thethree-dimensionalmapofdarkmatterwasbuiltupbytakingslicesthroughdifferentregionsofspace;muchlikeamedicalCTscannerbuildsa3DimageofthebodybytakingdifferentX-ray“slices”intwodimensions.DatafromtheHubbletelescopewassupplementedbymeasurementsfromtelescopesontheground,suchastheVeryLargeTelescopeoftheEuropeanSouthernObservatoryandtheJapaneseSubarutelescope.DetailsofthedarkmattermapwerereleasedyesterdayattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanAstronomicalsocietyinSeattleandpublishedonlinebythejournalNature.Themapstretcheshalfwaybacktothebeginningoftheuniverseandshowsthatdarkmatterhasformedinto“clumps”asitcollapsedundergravity.Othermatterthengroupedaroundtheseclumpstoformthevisiblestars,galaxiesandplanets.“The3Dinformationisvitaltostudyingtheevolutionofthestructuresovercosmictime,”saidanotherfamousscientist.Astronomershavecomparedthetaskofdetectingdarkmattertothedifficultyofphotographingacityatnightfromtheairwhenonlystreetlightsarevisible.Scientistssaidthenewimageswereequivalenttoseeingacity,itssuburbsandcountryroadsindaylightforthefirsttime.Majorarteriesandintersectionsbecomeevidentandavarietyofneighborhoodsarerevealed.“Nowthatwehavebeguntomapoutwheredarkmatteris,thenextchallengeistodeterminewhatitis,andspecificallyitsrelationshiptonormalmatter,”theleadingscientistsaid.“Wehaveansweredthefirstquestionaboutwherethedarkmatteris,buttheultimategoalwillbetodeterminewhatitis.”VariousexperimentsonEarthareunderwaytotrytofindoutwhatdarkmatterismadeof.Onetheoryisthatitiscomposedofmysterioussub-atomicparticlesthataredifficulttodetectbecausetheydonotinteractwithordinarymatterandsocannotbepickedupandidentifiedbyconventionalscientificinstruments.Comparingthemapsofvisiblematteranddarkmatterhasalreadypointedtoanomaliesthatcouldprovecriticaltotheunderstandingofwhatconstitutesdarkmatter.DetailedStudy(Para.2)Astronomersannouncedyesterdaythattheyhaveachievedtheapparentlyimpossibletaskofcreatingapictureofsomethingthathasdefiedeveryattempttodetectitsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulatedinl933.【译文】昨天，天文学家声明：他们已完成了在此之前看似不可能完成的任务——自l933年假设暗物质存在以来，人们一直尝试构建它的图像，但每次均以失败告终。此句是由“that”引导的宾语从句，在宾语从句中是由“since”引导的时间状语从句。“since”意为“自……以来”。e.g.ItwasthefirsttimeIdwonsinceIlearnttoplaychess.“since”作为副词，有“后来”之意：e.g.ShemovedtoLondonlastMayandhassincegotajobatanewspaper.“since”作为介词，意为“自从”：e.g.Educationhasmaderapidprogresssinceliberation.defyvt.(l)topresentobstaclestopreventsth.使……成为不可能，使……落空e.g.Thebeautyofthescenedefiesdescription.(2)torefusetoobeyorshowrespectforsb.inauthority,alaw,arule,etc.违(反)抗，藐(蔑)视e.g.Iwouldnthavedaredtodefymyteachers.Hundredsofpeopletodaydefiedthebanonpoliticalgatherings.defiancen.e.g.Hisdefianceofthelawcosthimdearly.detect:vt.tonoticeordiscoversth.,especiallysth.thatisnoteasytosee,hear,etc.发现，察觉，探测e.g.Manyformsofcancercanbecuredifdetectedearly.Dandetectedachangeinhermood.detectable:adj.可察觉的，易发现的e.g.Thenoiseisbarelydetectablebythehumanear.(Para.3)...butitisonlynowthattheyhavebeenabletocapturethefirstsignificant3Dimageofthisotherwiseinvisiblematerial.【译文】但直到现在，科学家们才首次捕捉到了这一本不可见的物质的三维图形。本句是强调句，强调时间。Itis(was)+状语+that+句子，此结构用来强调状语，充当状语的可以是单词、词组或者从句，可以强调时间、地点、时间状语从句、地点状语从句和主语从句。ItwasyesterdaythatIboughtthebookinthebookstore.(强调时间)ItwasinthebookstorethatIboughtthebookyesterday.(强调地点)ItwasonlywhenIbadlyneededthebookthatIboughtityesterday.(强调时间状语从句)Itwasbecause(不用Since,why,as)IbadlyneededthebookthatIboughtityesterday.(强调原因状语从句)Itiswhatyoudothatisimportant.(强调主语从句)capturevt.(l)tosucceedinrecording,showing,ordescribingasituationorfeeling,usingwordsorpictures捕捉，抓取，获得e.g.Iclosedmyeyestightlytocapturethepicturefirmlyinmymind.(2)tocatchapersonandkeephim/herasaprisoner俘虏(获)e.g.Governmenttroopshavesucceededincapturingtherebelleader.capture:n.theactofcapturingsb./sth.orofbeingcaptured俘(捕)获，占领e.g.Thesoldierplayeddeadtoescapecapturebytheenemy.otherwiseadv.(l)exceptforwhathasjustbeenmentioned除此以外e.g.Hewastiredbutotherwiseingoodhealth.Thisspoiledanotherwiseexcellentpieceofwork.(2)inanotheroradifferentway用别的方法，不同地e.g.we’llgettheresomehow,byboatorotherwise.otherwiseconj.ifconditionsweredifferent;ifnot…否则，不然e.g.Putthecapbackonthebottle,otherwisethejuicewillspill.Wemustrun,otherwisewe’llbetoolate.(Para.8)Darkmatterisamysteriousandinvisibleformofmatter,aboutwhichweknowverylittle,yetitdominatesthemassoftheuniverse.【译文】暗物质占据着宇宙的大部分，它是一种神秘又难观测到的物质，我们对其所知甚少。dominatevt.(1)tocontrolorhavealotofinfluenceoversb./sth.,ofteninanunpleasantway支配，统治e.g.Spainoncedominatedtheseas.Intelevision,threenetworksclearlydominatethemarketofAmericanviewers.(2)tobethemostimportantornoticeablefeatureofsth.在……中占主要地位e.g.Thetraincrashdominatedthenews.Sports,thoughimportant,shouldnotdominateourschools.dominationn.支配，统治，控制e.g.Shehasbeenunderthedominationofherfathersincechildhood.4.(Para.10)Althoughcosmologistshavetheorizedthatthiswouldbethecase,thefindingsaredramaticproofthattheircalculationsarecorrectandthat,withoutdarkmatter,theknownuniversethatwecanseewouldnotbeabletoexist.【译文】虽然宇宙学家已从理论上阐明了暗物质的存在，但这组发现明确地证实了宇宙学家的测算是正确的，同时也证明了如果没有暗物质，我们已知的这个世界就不可能存在。本句为“although”引导的让步状语从句，主句为“that”引导的同位语从句补充和说明“proof”。theorizevt.(1)tothinkofapossibleexplanationforaneventorfact推理e.g.Researcherstheorizethattherewasonceacommonlanguageforallhumanity.Itisagravemistaketotheorizebeforeonehasdata.(2)toformatheoryortheoriesaboutsth.建立理论，理论化e.g.scientistshavetheorizedaboutdarkmatterforaboutseventyyears.dramaticadj.(l)excitingandimpressive激动人心的，给人印象深刻的e.g.someofthemostdramaticeventsinAmericanhistoryhappenedhere.Heropeningwordsweredramatic.(2)greatandsudden剧烈的e.g.Thegovernmentisalarmedbythedramaticincreaseinviolentcrime.(3)connectedwiththetheaterorplays戏剧性的e.g.Anewdramaticproductionisplannedattheschoolafterthestartofnextsemester.(Para.12)Thethree-dimensionalmapofdarkmatterwasbuiltupbytakingslicesthroughdifferentregionsofspace;muchlikeamedicalCTscannerbuildsa3Dimageofthebodybytakingdifferentx-ray“slices”intwodimensions.【译文】暗物质的三维图形是通过宇宙空间不同区域的横切面构建而成，它与医学上的CT扫描仪通过X射线获取人体二维截面以形成人体的三维成像非常相似。likeconj.inthesamewayas正如，像……那样e.g.Nooneelsecanscoregoalslikehecan!Don’ttalktomelikeyoutalktoachild.(Para.14)Themapstretcheshalfwaybacktothebeginningoftheuniverseandshowsthatdarkmatterhasformedinto“clumps”asitcollapsedundergravity.【译文】该图形追溯到了宇宙发展的中期，展示了暗物质在重力作用下分裂而形成的“暗物质团”。stretchv.(1)tomakesth.Longer,wider,orlooser拉长，伸展e.g.Isthereanywayofstretchingshoes?(2)toextendorreach,ineithertimeorspace延伸e.g.Thewheatfieldstretchedtothehorizon.stretchn.actofstretchingorthestateofbeingstretched伸展，张开e.g.Thedogwokeup.hadagoodstretchandwanderedoff.collapsev.(1)tofalldownorfallinsuddenly,oftenafterbreakingapart倒(坍)塌e.g.Theroofcollapsedundertheweightofsnow.(2)toquicklygetworse,downtoaverylowpoint病倒，昏厥e.g.Hishealthcollapsedbecauseofoverwork.collapsen.倒塌，崩溃e.g.Thecollapseofthebuildingcausednocasualties.(Para.16)Astronomershavecomparedthetaskofdetectingdarkmattertothedifficultyofphotographingacityatnightfromtheairwhenonlystreetlightsarevisible.【译文】天文学家认为，探测暗物质的任务如同在只有街灯的夜间从空中拍摄城市景观一样艰难。“compare…to…”意为“把……比作(喻为)”，“compare…with…”意为“与……相比”。e.g.ThecriticscomparedhisworktothatofMartinAmis.Wecarefullycomparedthefirstreportwiththesecond.Myownproblemsseeminsignificantcomparedwith(incomparisonto)otherpeoples.(Para.18)Nowthatwehavebeguntomapoutwheredarkmatteris,thenextchallengeistodeterminewhatitis...【译文】既然我们已开始勾勒暗物质所处的位置，那下一个挑战就是搞清楚它是什么……“nowthat”引导让步状语从句，意为“既然，由于”。e.g.Nowthatyouareauniversitystudent,youshouldlearntobeindependentofyourparenthelp.NowthatIamfree,Icanenjoymusicforawhile.(Para.19)Comparingthemapsofvisiblematteranddarkmatterhasalreadypointedtoanomaliesthatcouldprovecritica1totheunderstandingofwhatconstitutesdarkmatter:Comparisonsmadebetweenvisiblemattermapsanddarkmattermapshaveshownsomeunusualaspects.whichcouldproveimportantfordiscoveringwhatdarkmatterismadeupof.【译文】对可见物质和暗物质的图片比较已证明了暗物质的独特之处，这对于理解暗物质的构成很关键。criticaladj.(1)extremelyimportantbecauseafuturesituationwillbeaffectedbyit危急时刻的，决定性的，关键的e.g.Thatwasacriticaltimeinthenationshistory.(2)(~ofsb./sth.)expressingdisapprovalofsb./sth.andsayingwhatyouthinkisbadaboutthem批评(判)的，评论性的e.g.Hereceivedseriouscriticalcommentsonhisinefficiencyatwork.constitutevt.(1)tobethepartsthattogetherformsth.组(构)成e.g.Therearemanydisparatepartsthattogetherconstituteacar.(2)toofficiallyformagroupororganization正式成(建)立e.g.Thecommitteehadbeenimproperlyconstituted,andthereforehadnolegalpower.StructureStudySummaryoftheTextDirections:Thetextcanbedividedintofourparts.Fi11intheb1ankswithappropriatewordsfromthetexttocompletethemainideaofeachpart.PartsParagraphsMainIdeasPartOneParas.l—2Astronomersannouncedthattheyhavebeenabletol)capturethefirstsignificant3D2)imageofdarkmatterwhichisotherwise3)invisible.PartTwoParas.3—7704)astronomersfromdifferentcountriesexploited5)gravitationallensingbycollectingthedistortedlightfromhalfamillionfarawaygalaxiesto6)reconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniversebutnobodyknowswhatitismadeofeventhoughit7)dominatesthemassoftheuniverse.PartThreeParas.8—16Thescientistswanttoshowwhatthedarkmatterlookslike.8)0verall,itappearstoformaninvisiblescaffoldor9)skeletonwithinwhichtheordinarymatter—includingstars,galaxiesandplanets—canlaterbebuilt.PartFourParas.17—19Thescientistshavebeguntomapoutwheredarkmatteris,butourl0)ultimategoalwillbetodeterminewhatitis.Directions:Answerthefollowingquestionsaccordingtothetext.l)Werethemanyscientists,whohavetriedtodetectapictureoftheinvisiblematerialsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulated,successful?No.Ithasdefiedeveryattempttodetectitsinceitsexistencewasfirstpostulatedinl933.Howdidscientistsusethephenomenonknownasgravitationallensing,firstpredictedbyAlbertEinstein,toreconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniverse?Thescientistswereabletoexploitthistechniquebycollectingthedistortedlightfromhalfamillionfarawaygalaxiestoreconstructsomeofthemissingmassoftheuniverse.Howdidtheleadingscientistdescribethedarkmatter?Itlookslikeafilamentaryweb,whichisthreadedthroughtheentireuniverse,andactsasscaffoldingwithinwhichtheordinarymatter—includingstars,galaxiesandplanets—canlaterbebuilt.Isthestudyofthe3Dimageimportant?whyorwhynot?Yes.The3Dinformationisvitaltostudyingtheevolutionofthestructuresovercosmictime.Accordingtothetext,whydoscientistsmakeeffortstodetectdarkmatter?Becausewithoutdarkmatter,theknownuniversethatwecanseewouldnotbeabletoexist.After-readingKeytoExercises—Vocabulary1.1)skeleton2)released3)captured4)collapsed5)ultimate6)intersection7)otherwise8)equivalent9)defy10)distorting2.1)ThedesksarearrangedinaU-shape,sotheteachercaninteracteasilywiththestudents.2)Detectivesaretryingtobuildupapictureofthekidnapper.3)Usingatelescope,Galileodiscoveredstarsthatwereinvisibletothenakedeye.4)Ourpartnershipdatesbacktol960.5)Thesunemergedfrombehindtheclouds.6)Itisvitaltobehonestwithyourchildren.7)Theresearchprojecthasonlybeenunderwayforthreemonths,soitstooearlytoevaluateitssuccess.8)TheBritishParliamentiscomposedoftheHouseofCommonsandtheHouseofLords.KeytoExercises—Structure1.1)Nowthatweknoweachotherquitewell2)Nowthatthekidshavelefthome3)Nowthatyouhavegrownupandbecomeauniversitystudent4)NowthatIvepaidthetaxdemandedandthechildrensschoolfees5)Nowthatpricesarerisingsofast2.1)Thisbridgeovertheriveristhreetimesthelengthofthatone.2)Ourparentsbedroomistwicethesizeofmine.3)Thisswimmingpoolisfourtimesthewidthoftheoneunderconstruction.4)ItisreportedthatthemountainthatthemountaineersclimbedyesterdayistwicetheheightofTaibaiMountain.5)Wehavetoadmitthatthiswellisfivetimesthedepthofthatone.KeytoExercises—Clozesuperior2)approach3)bluntly4)egos5)conquered6)stable7)stagger8)imperfections9)signaling10)initiateKeytoExercises—Translation中国最新的载人航天飞船上周四与空间站对接成功，三名宇航员登上空间站，那里将是他们下周接下来一周的居住地。神舟十号对接空间实验将由自动化控制。进入太空实验室之后船员们换上了他们在空间内的蓝色连身衣。他们将在空间实验室中停留l2天。期间，宇航员们将进行手动对接练习并开展科学实验，他们还将提供一系列科学讲座，提高中国太空计划在青少年人群中的普及程度。After-readingActivityOne:TalkingaboutPicturesDirections:Fromoursmallworld,wehavegazeduponthecosmicoceanforuntoldthousandsofyears.Buttheyearssincel957haveamountedtoagoldenageofspaceexploration.Usethefollowingtabletohelpyousharewhatyouknowwithyourclassmates. TimeAfter-readingActivityTwo:PairWorkfETDirections:Doyoubelieveintheexistenceofintelligentextraterrestriallife?Ifyes,whatdoesitlooklike?Whatkindsofsuperpowerdoesithave?PicturetheimageofETinyourmindinthespaceprovidedbelowandlistthesuperpoweritpossesses.Thenplanaone-daytourforyourETfriendontheearth.yTourTimeAfter-readingActivityThree:DiscussionDirections:Breakupintogroupsanddiscussthefollowingquestions.Everyyear,billionsofdollarsarespentbytheworld’sspaceagencies,butdoesthismoneybringusanybenefit?Isspaceexplorationawasteofmoneyorshouldwepulltheplugandspendthemoneyelsewhere?AdditionalMaterialsActivityOneDirections:Howmuchdoyouknowabouttheuniversethatwearelivingin?Readthestatementsbelowanddecidewhetherthesefactsabouttheuniversearetrueorfalse.Referenceanswers:(T)l.Theuniverseisexpanding.(F)2.Thesunisagiantcomparedtootherstars.Thesunisamediumsizedstarabouthalfwaythroughitslifecycle.(T)3.Thelawsofphysicsbreakdownatthecenterofablackhole.(T)4.Thereareaninfinitenumberofparalleluniverses.(F)5.Thereareonlyafewknowngalaxiesthatexistintheuniverse.Thereareactuallyhundredsofbillionsofgalaxiesknowninouruniverse.ActivityTwoDirections:TherearevariousChineselegendsabouttheoriginoftheuniverse.Ingroupsof4or5,usethekeywordsinthetablebelowtotellthestoryofPanguandNüwa.ütoflingaropeTips:PanguSeparatestheSkyfromtheEarthChinahasahistorylongerthanthatofanyotherpresent-daynation,containingaplethoraofmythsandlegends.ThefirstfigurethatcreatedtheworldinChinashistorywasnamedPangu.Accordingtolegend,inthebeginning,therewasonlydarknessandchaos,andtheskyandtheearthwereoneblurredentity.Thisvast“egg”astheChinesecallit,wassubjecttotwoopposingforcesorprinciples.Theinteractionbetweenthetwoforces:theyin(passiveornegativefemaleprinciple)andtheyang(activeorpositivemaleprinciple)gavebirthtoPangu,causingtheeggsshelltocrack.Theseparationoftheskyandtheearthtookl8,000yearstocomplete:Theyang,whichwaslightandpure,rosetobecomethesky;theyin,whichwasheavyandmurky,sanktoformtheearth.BetweentheskyandtheearthwasPangu,whounderwentninechangeseveryday:hiswisdomisgreaterthanthatoftheskyandhisabilitygreaterthanthatoftheearth.Everydaytheskyrosetenfeet,theearthbecametenfeetthickerandPangugrewtenfeettaller.Anotherl8,000yearspassedandtheskywasveryhigh;theearth,denseandPangu,extremelytall.Hisbodythendissolvedandhisheadbecamethemountains;hisbreath,thewindandclouds;hisvoice,thethunder;hislefteye,thesunandhisrighteye,themoon.Pangusbeardbecamethestars;hisfourlimbs,thefourquadrantsoftheglobe;hisblood,theriversandhisveinsandmuscles,thelayersoftheearth.Hisfleshbecamethesoil;hisskinandhair,thetreesandplants;hissemen,pearls;hismarrow,preciousstonesandhissweatturnedintorain.Allinall,Panguandtheuniversebecameone.NüwaCreatesHumansInChinesemythology,Nüwaisthegoddessoforderwhocreatedhumans.Accordingtolegend,Nüwacametotheearthbeforetherewereanyhuman.Nüwabecamelonelyanddecidedtomakecopiesofherselffrommudinapool.Thefiguresshecreatedcametolifeandwanderedofftopopulatetheearth.Afterawhile,Nüwarealizedthatitwouldtaketoolongtofilltheearthwithpeopleifshemadeeachonebyhand.soshetookarope,dippeditintothemud,andflungthedropsofmudinalldirections.Eachdropbecameaseparatehumanbeing.BackgroundInformationDarkMatterLearningaboutdarkmatterhelpsdeterminetheshapeoftheuniverse,becausetheshapeoftheuniversedependsonthekindofstuffinit.Moreover,becausedarkmattercomprisessuchalargeamountoftheuniverse,understandingitsnatureandbehaviorareintegral.FritzZwickywasthepioneerinthisfield.Inl933,attheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,theSwissastrophysicistZwickywasthefirsttotheorizedarkmatterafterheobservedthattherewas400timesthemassintheComaclusterofgalaxiesthanthere“should”havebeenorthathehadexpectedtheretobe.AccordingtoZwicky,theremusthavebeensomethingthatcouldn’tbeseenthataccountedfortherestofthismass.Furthermore,hecametoanotherconclusionbylookingatgroupsofgalaxiestensofmillionsoflight-yearsawayfromoneanother.Zwickyobservedthattheirrelativespeedsweremuchtoogreatforthemtobeheldtogetherbythegravitationalattractionofthevisiblematteralone,andthattherefore,theremusthavebeensomethingelseholdingthemtogether.Hecalledthissomethingelse“invisiblematter”or“darkmatter”.Andthenotherdiscoveriessprangforth.Inl950,awomannamedVeraRubinmadeanotherstartlingdiscovery.Newton’slawspredictedthatbodiesorbitingaroundacentermovemoreslowlythefarthertheyarefromthatcenter.Instead,RubinsconclusionscontradictedNewtonianlaws.shebuiltonthetheoriesofZwickytodiscoverthatgalaxiesshowedan“extramotion”:byexamininggalacticlightsignatures,shefoundthatbodiesorbitingaroundtheoutskirtsofgalaxiestraveledatapproximatelythesamespeedasthebodiesorbitingnearthecenterofagalaxy,thereforesomeothermatterhadtoexistintheoutskirts,somematterthatwecouldn’tsee,thatwasactinguponthevisiblebodies.Thepunchlinewasdarkmatter.Overthesecondhalfofthe20thCenturymanyotherimportantcontributionstotheoriesofdarkmatterhavebeenmadebythelikesofMordehaiMilgromandYakovZel’dovich.However,themostimportantthingtorememberinlearningaboutthehistoryofdarkmattertheoriesisthatthereisalwaysroomforimprovement,alwaysanewwaytothinkaboutthings,alwaysanewwaytowidenourmindstocrucialquestionsabouttheuniverse.2.HubbleSpaceTelescopeTheHubbleSpaceTelescope(HST)isaspacetelescopethatwascarriedintoorbitbythespaceshuttleDiscoveryinAprill990.ItisnamedaftertheAmericanastronomerEdwinHubble.Althoughnotthefirstspacetelescope,theHubbleisoneofthelargestandmostversatile,andiswell-knownasbothavitalresearchtoolandapublicrelationsboonforastronomy.TheHubbleistheonlytelescopeeverdesignedtobeservicedinspacebyastronauts.Todate,therehavebeenfourservicingmissions.servicingMissionltookplaceinDecemberl993whenHubble’simagingflawwascorrected.servicingmissions2,3A,and3Brepairedvarioussub-systemsandreplacedmanyoftheobservinginstrumentswithmoremodernandcapableversions.3.EuropeanSouthernObservatoryTheEuropeanSou