(英文)罗宾斯管理学考研笔记1-19章

Management(9tdEdition)罗宾斯《管理学》英文笔记（1-13）Chapter1introductiontomanagementandorganizationManagersManagerscoordinateandoverseetheworkofotherpeopletoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Non-managerialemployeesworkdirectlyonajobortaskandhavenoonereportingtothem.Classifyingmanagers:Topmanagersaremanagersatorneartheupperlevelsoftheorganizationwhoareresponsibleformakingorganization-widedecisionsandestablishingtheplansandgoalsthataffecttheentireorganization.Middlemanagersarethosebetweenthelowestandtoplevelsoftheorganizationwhomanagetheworkoffirst-linemanagers.First-linemanagersarethoseatthelowestlevelofmanagementwhomanagetheworkofnon-managerialemployeesandtypicallyaredirectlyorindirectlyinvolvedwithproducingtheorganization’sproductsorservicingtheorganization’scustomers.ManagementManagementinvolvescoordinatingandoverseeingtheworkactivitiesofotherssothattheiractivitiesarecompletedefficientlyandeffectively.Efficiencymeansdoingthingsrightorgettingthemostoutputfromtheleastamountofinputs.Effectivenessmeansdoingtherightthings,orcompletingactivitiessothatorganizationalgoalsareattained.ManagementfunctionsPlanninginvolvesdefininggoals,establishingstrategiesforachievingthosegoals,anddevelopingplanstointegrateandcoordinateactivities.Organizinginvolvesarrangeandstructureworktoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Leadinginvolvesworkingwithandthroughpeopletoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Controllinginvolvesmonitoring,comparing,andcorrectingworkperformance.Managementroles(HenryMintzberg’smanagerialroles)Interpersonalrolesinvolvepeopleandotherdutiesthatareceremonialandsymbolicinnature.Informationrolesinvolvecollecting,receiving,anddisseminatinginformation.Decisionalrolesinvolvemakingchoices.InterpersonalrolesFigurehead象征性首脑，履行许多法律性或社会性的义务迎接来访者；签署法律文件Leader负责激励下属，承担人员配备、培训及有关职责实际上从事所有的有下级参与的活动Liaison维护自行发展起来的外部关系和消息来源，从中得到帮助和信息发感谢信；从事外部委员会的工作；从事其他有外部人员参加的活动InformationrolesMonitor寻求和获取各种内部外部信息以便透彻理解组织与环境阅读期刊和报告；与有关人员保持私人接触Disseminator将从外部人员和下级处获得的信息传递给组织其他成员举行信息交流会；打电话方式转达信息Spokesperson向外部发布组织的计划、政策、行动、结果等召开董事会，向媒体发布信息DecisionalrolesEntrepreneur寻求组织和环境中的机会，制定改进方案以发起变革组织战略制定和检查会议，以开发新项目Disturbancehandler当组织面临重大的意外的混乱时负责采取纠正行动组织应对混乱和危机的战略制定和检查会议Resourceallocator负责分配组织各种资源，制定和批准相关决策调度、授权、开展预算活动，安排下级工作Negotiator在主要的谈判中作为组织的代表参加与工会的合同谈判Managementskills(RobertL.Katz)Technicalskillsarethejob-specificknowledgeandtechniquesneededtoproficientlyperformworktasks.Theseskillsaremoreimportantforfirst-linemanagers.Humanskillsrefertotheabilitytoworkwellwithotherpeoplebothindividuallyandinagroup.Theseskillsareequallyimportantforallmanagers.Conceptualskillsrefertotheabilitytothinkandtoconceptualizeaboutabstractandcomplexsituations.Theseskillsaremoreimportantfortopmanagers.Thechangesinmanager’sjob:Changingtechnology(digitization)Impact:shiftingorganizationalboundariesVirtualworkplacesMoremobileworkforceFlexibleworkarrangementEmpoweredemployeesChangingsecuritythreatsImpact:riskarrangementWorklife-personallifebalanceRestructuredworkplaceDiscriminationconcernsGlobalizationconcernsEmployeeassistanceIncreasedemphasisonorganizationalandmanagerialissuesImpact:redefinedvaluesRebuildingtrustIncreasedaccountabilityIncreasedcompetitivenessImpact:customerservice(Customerserviceisimportantbecausewithoutthem,mostorganizationswouldceasetoexist.Andemployeeattitudesandbehaviorsplayabigroleincustomersatisfaction.)Innovation(Innovationisimportantfororganizationstobecompetitive.)GlobalizationEfficiency/productivityOrganizationCharacteristicsoforganization:adistinctivepurpose,composedofpeople,andadeliberatestructure.Today’sorganizationsaremoreopen,flexible,andresponsivetochangesthanorganizationsoncewere.WhystudymanagementIt’simportanttostudymanagementforthreereasons:(1)theuniversalityofmanagement,(2)therealityofwork,and(3)therewardsandchallengesofbeingamanager.Theuniversalityofmanagementreferstothefactthatmanagersareneededinalltypesandsizesoforganizations,atallorganizationallevelsandworkareas,andinallgloballocations.Therealityofwork—thatisyouwilleithermanageorbemanaged.Rewards:Createaworkenvironmentinwhichorganizationalmemberscanworktothebestoftheirability.Haveopportunitiestothinkcreativelyanduseimagination.Helpothersfindmeaningandfulfillmentinwok.Support,coach,andnurtureothers,etc.Challenges:DohardworkMayhavemoreclericalthanmanagerialdutiesHavetodealwithavarietyofpersonalitiesOftenhavetomakedowithlimitedresources,etc.Chapter7FoundationsofPlanningPlanningPlanninginvolvesdefiningorganization’sgoals,establishinganoverallstrategyforachievingthosegoals,anddevelopingplanstointegrateandcoordinateworkactivities.Informalplanning,specificgoalscoveringaspecifictimeperiodarewrittenandsharedwithorganizationalmembers,andspecificplansexistforachievingthesegoals.Ininformalplanning,goalsareneverwrittendownorseldomtalkedwithotherorganizationalmembers.Informalplanningalsolackscontinuity.ThepurposeofplanningProvidingdirectiontomanagersandnon-managersalike.Reducinguncertainty.Minimizingwasteandredundancy.Establishinggoalsorstandardsusedincontrolling.TherelationshipbetweenplanningandperformanceFirst,generallyspeaking,formalplanningisassociatedwithpositivefinancialresults.Second,it’smoreimportanttodoagoodjobofplanningandimplementingtheplansthantodomoreextensiveplans.Next,instudieswhereformalplanningdidn’tleadtohigherperformance,externalenvironmentoftenwastheculprit.Finally,theplanning-performancerelationshipseemstobeinfluencedbytheplanningtimeframe.Goals:Goalsaredesiredoutcomes.Thetypesofgoals:financialgoalsarerelatedtothefinancialperformanceoftheorganization,whilestrategicgoalsarerelatedtoallareasofanorganizationperformance.Statedgoalsareofficialstatementofwhatanorganizationsays—andwhatitwantsitsvariousstakeholderstobelieve–itsgoalsare.Realgoalsarethegoalsthatanorganizationactuallypursues,anddefinedbytheactionsofitsmembers.Plans:Plansaredocumentsthatoutlinehowgoalsaregoingtobemet.Typesofplans:(breadth)strategicoroperational(Timeframe)longtermorshortterm(Specificity)directionalorspecific(Frequencyofuse)singleuseorstandingStrategicplansapplytoanentireorganization,whileoperationalplansencompassaparticularfunctionalarea.Longtermplansarethosewithatimeframebeyondthreeyears.Shorttermplansarethosecovingoneyearorless.Specificplansarecleardefinedandleavenoroomforinterpretation.Directionalplansareflexibleandsetoutgeneralguidelines.Asingle-useplanisaone-timeplananddesignedtomeettheneedsofauniquesituation.Standingplansareongoingplansthatprovideguidanceforactivitiesperformrepeatedly.TwoapproachestosettinggoalsTraditionalgoalsettingIntraditionalgoalsetting,goalssetbytopmanagerflowdownthroughtheorganizationandbecomesubgoalsforeachorganizationarea.Means-endschainisanintegratednetworkofgoalsinwhichgoalsachievedatlowerlevelsserveasthemeansforachievingthegoalsatthenextlevel.Managementbyobjectives(MBO)Managementbyobjectivesisaprocessofsettingmutuallyagreedupongoalsandusingthosegoalstoevaluateemployeeperformance.Sixcharacteristicsofwell-writtengoals:(1)writtenintermsofoutcomes,(2)measurableandquantifiable,(3)clearastoatimeframe,(4)challengingbutattainable,(5)writtendown,(6)communicatedtoallorganizationalmemberswhoneedtoknowthem.Fivestepsofsettinggoals:Reviewtheorganization’smissionEvaluateavailableresourcesDeterminingthegoalsindividuallyorwithinputfromothersWritedownthegoalsandcommunicatethemtoallwhoneedtoknowthemReviewresultsandwhethergoalsarebeingmet.Threecontingencyfactorsinplanning:themanager’slevelintheorganization,degreeofenvironmentuncertainty,andthelengthoffuturecommitments.TwoapproachestoplanningTraditionalapproachIntraditionalapproach,plansaredevelopedbytopmanagersandflowdownthroughotherorganizationlevels;thisapproachmayuseaformalplanningdepartment.MBOMBOapproachinvolvesmoreorganizationalmembersintheplanningprocess.Criticismsofplanning:Planningmaycreaterigidity.Planscan’tbedevelopedforadynamicenvironment.Formalplanscan’treplaceintuitionandcreativity.Planningmayfocusmanagers’attentionontoday’scompetition,notontomorrow’ssurvival.Formalplansreinforcesuccess,whichmayleadtofailure.Justplanningisn'tenough.Thesecriticismsarevalidifplanningisrigidandinflexible.Effectiveplanningintoday’sdynamicenvironmentManagersshoulddevelopplansthatarespecificbutflexible.It’salsoimportanttomaketheorganizationalhierarchyflatterandallowlowerorganizationallevelstosetgoalsanddevelopplans.Chapter8StrategicManagementDefinestrategicmanagement,strategy,andbusinessmodel.Strategicmanagementiswhatmanagersdotodevelopanorganization’sstrategies.Strategiesaretheplansforhowtheorganizationwilldowhateverit’sinbusinesstodo,howitwillcompetesuccessfully,andhowitwillattractandsatisfyitscustomersinordertoachieveitsgoals.Abusinessmodelishowacompanyisgoingtomakemoney.Givefourreasonswhystrategicmanagementisimportant.Itmakesadifferenceinhowanorganizationperforms.It’simportantforhelpingmanagerscopewithcontinuallychangingsituations.Organizationsarecomplexanddiverse.Strategicmanagementhelpstocoordinateandfocusemployees’effortsonwhatisimportant.It’srelatedtomanydecisionsmadebymanagers.Thesixstepsinthestrategicmanagementprocess.Thesixstepsare(1)identifythecurrentmission,goals,andstrategies;(2)doanexternalanalysis;(3)doaninternalanalysis;(4)formulatestrategies;(5)implementstrategies;and(6)evaluatestrategies.DefineSWOT.TheSWOTanalysisisananalysisofanorganization’sstrengths,weaknesses,opportunitiesandthreats.Strengthsareanyactivitiestheorganizationdoeswelloruniqueresourcesithas.Weaknessesaretheactivitiesorganizationdoesn’tdowellortheresourcesitneedsbutdoesn’thave.Opportunitiesarepositivetrendsintheexternalenvironment.Threatsarenegativetrends.Defineresources,capabilities,andcorecompetencies.Resourcesareanorganization’sassetsthatusedtodevelop,manufacture,anddeliverproductstoitscustomers.Capabilitiesareanorganization’sskillsandabilitiesindoingtheworkactivitiesneededinitsbusiness.Corecompetenciesarethemajorvalue-creatingcapabilities.Bothresourcesandcorecompetenciesdeterminetheorganization’scompetitiveweapons.Thethreetypesoforganization’sstrategiesAcorporatestrategyspecifieswhatbusinessacompanyisinorwantstobeinandwhatitwantstodowiththosebusinesses.Abusiness/competitivestrategyisastrategyforhowanorganizationwillcompeteinitsbusiness.Functionalstrategiesarethestrategiesusedbyanorganization’svariousfunctionaldepartmentstosupporttheorganization’scompetitivestrategy.Corporatestrategies.(growth,stability,renew)Thethreetypes:Withagrowthstrategy,anorganizationexpandsthenumberofmarketsservedorproductsofferedeitherthroughcurrentornewbusinesses.Thetypesofgrowthstrategiesincludeconcentration,verticalintegration(backwardandforward),horizontalintegration,anddiversification(relatedandunrelated).Withastabilitystrategy,anorganizationcontinuestodowhatitiscurrentlydoing.Arenewstrategyaddressorganizationalweaknessesthatareleadingtoperformancedecline.Thetwotypesofrenewstrategiesareretrenchmentandturnaroundstrategies.Aretrenchmentstrategyisashort-runrenewstrategyusedforminorperformanceproblems.Whileaturnaroundstrategyisusedwhenanorganization’sproblemsaremoreserious.BCGmatrixBCGmatrixisastrategytoolthatguidesresourcesallocationdecisionsonthebasisofabusiness’smarketshareanditsindustry’santicipatedgrowthrate.ThefourcategoriesoftheBCGmatrixarecashcows,stars,questionmarks,anddogs.Business/competitivestrategiesTheroleofcompetitiveadvantage:Anorganization’scompetitiveadvantageiswhatsetsitapart,itsdistinctiveedge.Acompany’scompetitiveadvantagebecomesthebasisofchoosinganappropriatebusinessorcompetitivestrategy.Porter’sfiveforcesmodelPorter’sfiveforcesmodelassessesthefivecompetitiveforcesthatdictatetherulesofcompetitioninanindustry:(1)threatofnewentrants,(2)threatofsubstitutes,(3)bargainingpowerofbuyers,(4)bargainingpowerofsuppliers,and(5)rivalry.Porter’sthreecompetitivestrategiesWithacostleadershipstrategy,anorganizationcompetesonthebasisofhavingthelowestcostinitsindustry.Withadifferentiationstrategy,anorganizationcompetesonthebasisofhavinguniqueproductsthatarewidelyvaluedbycustomers.Withafocusstrategy,anorganizationcompetesinanarrowsegment,witheitheracostadvantageoradifferentiationadvantage.Explainwhystrategicflexibilityisimportant.Strategicflexibilityistheabilitytorecognizemajorexternalchanges,toquicklycommitresources,andtorecognizewhenastrategicdecisionisn’tworking.Itisimportantbecausemanagersoftenfacehighlyuncertainenvironments.Explaine-businessstrategies.Managerscanusee-businessstrategiestoreducecosts,todifferentiatetheirfirm’sproductsandservices,ortotarget(focuson)specificcustomergroupsortolowercostsbystandardizingcertainofficefunctions.Anotherimportante-businessstrategyistheclicks-and-bricksstrategy,whichcombinesonlineandtraditionalstand-alonelocations.Howtobecomemorecustomeroriented.Strategiesmanagerscanusetobecomemorecustomerorientedinclude:GivingcustomerswhattheywantCommunicatingeffectivelywithcustomersCultivatingaculturethatemphasizescustomerservice.HowtobecomemoreinnovativeStrategiesmanagerscanusetobecomemoreinnovativeinclude:Decidingtheirorganization’sinnovativeemphasis(basicscientificresearch,productdevelopment,orprocessdevelopment)Decidingitsinnovationtiming(firstmoverorfollower)Chapter10organizationalstructureanddesignSixkeyelementsinorganizationaldesign.WorkspecializationDepartmentalizationChainofcommandSpanofcontrolCentralizationanddecentralizationFormalizationWorkspecializationTraditionalview:workspecializationisawaytodivideworkactivitiestoseparatejobtasks.Contemporaryview:workspecializationisanimportantorganizingmechanism,butitcanleadtoproblemswhencarriedtoextremes.DepartmentalizationHowjobsaregroupedtogetheriscalleddepartmentalization.Thefiveformsofdepartmentalization:Functionaldepartmentalization—groupsjobsaccordingtofunctionProductdepartmentalization—groupsjobsbyproductlineGeographicaldepartmentalization—groupsjobsbygeographicalregionProcessdepartmentalization—groupsjobsonproductorcustomerflowCustomerdepartmentalization—groupsjobsonspecificanduniquecustomersChainofcommandChainofcommandisthelineofauthorityextendingfromupperorganizationallevelstothelowestlevels,whichclarifieswhoreportstowhom.Authorityreferstotherightsinherentinamanagerialpositiontotellpeoplewhattodoandtoexpectthemtodoit.Responsibilityistheobligationorexpectationtoperformassignedduties.Unityofcommandisamanagerialprinciplethateachpersonshouldreporttoonlyonemanager.Traditionalview:thechainofcommandanditscompanionconcepts—authority,responsibility,andunityofcommand—wereviewedasimportantwaysofmaintainingcontrolinorganizations.Contemporaryview:they’relessrelevantintoday’sorganizations.SpanofcontrolSpanofcontrolisthenumberofemployeesamanagercaneffectivelyandefficientlymanage.Traditionalview:managersshoulddirectlysupervisenomorethanfiveorsixemployees.Contemporaryview:thespanofcontroldependsontheskillsandabilitiesofthemanagerandtheemployeesandonthecharacteristicsoftheworkbeingdone.CentralizationanddecentralizationCentralizationisthedegreetowhichdecisionmakingisconcentratedatupperlevelsoftheorganization.Decentralizationisthedegreetowhichlower-levelemployeesprovideinputoractuallymakedecisions.(Centralization—decentralizationisastructuredecisionaboutwhomakedecision—upper-levelmanagersorlower-levelemployees.)MorecentralizationEnvironmentisstable.Lower-levelmanagersarenotascapableorexperiencedatmakingdecisionsasupper-levelmanagers.Lower-levelmanagersdonotwantasayindecisions.Decisionsarerelativelyminor.Theorganizationisfacingacrisisortheriskofcompanyfailure.Companyislarge.Effectiveimplementationofcompanystrategiesdependsonmanagersretainingsayoverwhathappens.MoredecentralizationEnvironmentiscomplex,uncertain.Lower-managersarecapableandexperiencedatmakingdecisions.Lower-managerswantavoiceindecisions.Decisionsaresignificant.Corporatecultureisopentoallowingmanagersasayinwhathappens.Companyisgeographicallydispersed.Effectiveimplementationofcompanystrategiesdependsonmanagershavinginvolvementandflexibilitytomakedecisions.FormalizationFormalizationreferstohowstandardizedanorganization’sjobsareandtheextenttowhichemployeebehaviorisguidedbyrulesandprocedures.Today’sview:althoughformalizationisnecessaryforconsistencyandcontrol,manyorganizationstodayrelylessonittoguideandregulateemployeebehavior.Contrastmechanisticandorganicorganizations.Amechanisticorganizationisarigidandtightlycontrolledstructure.Anorganicorganizationisahighlyadaptiveandflexiblestructure.Mechanistic organicHighspecialization cross-functionalteamsRigiddepartmentalization cross-hierarchicalteamsClearchainofcommand freeflowofinformationNarrowspansofcontrol widespansofcontrolCentralization decentralizationHighformalizationlowformalizationThecontingencyfactorsthataffectorganizationaldesign:StrategyAnorganizationalstructureshouldsupportitsstrategy.Ifthestrategychanges,thestructureshouldalsochange.SizeAnorganizationalsizecanaffectitsstructureuptoacertainpoint.Onceanorganizationreachesacertainsize(usuallyaround2000employees),it’sfairlymechanistic.Technology(Woodward’sfindings)Anorganizationaltechnologycanalsoaffectitsstructure.Anorganicstructureismosteffectivewithunitproductionandprocessproductiontechnology.Amechanisticstructureismosteffectivewithmassproductiontechnology.(Unitproductionreferstotheproductionofitemsinunitsorsmallbatches.Massproductionreferstotheproductionofitemsinlargebatches.Processproductionreferstotheproductionofitemsincontinualprocess.)EnvironmentaluncertaintyInstableandsimpleenvironments,mechanisticdesignscanbemoreeffective.Thegreatertheuncertainty,themoreitneedstheflexibilityofanorganicdesign.Contrastthethreetraditionalorganizationaldesigns.Asimplestructureisonewithlowdepartmentalization,widespansofcontrol,authoritycentralizedinasingleperson,andlittleformalization.Strengths:Fast;flexible;inexpensivetomaintain;clearaccountability.Weaknesses:Notappropriateasorganizationgrows;relianceononepersonisrisky.Afunctionalstructureisanorganizationaldesignthatgroupssimilarorrelatedoccupationalspecialiststogether.Strengths:Cost-savingadvantagesfromspecialization(economiesofscale,minimalduplicationofpeopleandequipment);employeesaregroupedwithotherswhohavesimilartasks.Weaknesses:Pursuitoforganizationalgoalscancausemanagerstolosesightofwhat’sbestfortheoverallorganization;functionalspecialistsbecomeinsulatedandhavelittleunderstandingofwhatotherunitsaredoing.Adivisionalstructureismadeupofseparatebusinessunitsordivisions.Strengths:Focusonresults—divisionmanagersareresponsibleforwhathappenstotheirproductsorservice.Weaknesses:Duplicationofactivitiesandresourcesincreasecostandreduceefficiency.Describethecontemporaryorganizationaldesign.TeamstructureInateamstructure,theentireorganizationismadeupofworkteams.Advantages:Employeesaremoreinvolvementandempowered.Reducedbarriersamongfunctionalareas.Disadvantages:Noclearchainofcommand.Pressureonteamstoperform.MatrixandprojectstructureMatrixisstructurethatassignspecialistsfromdifferentfunctionalareastoworkonprojectsbutwhoreturntotheirareaswhenprojectiscompleted.Projectisastructureinwhichemployeescontinuouslyworkonprojects.Asoneprojectiscompleted,employeesmoveontothenextproject.Advantages:Fluidandflexibledesignthatcanrespondtoenvironmentalchanges.Fasterdecisionmaking.Disadvantages:Complexityofassigningpeopletoprojects.Taskandpersonalityconflicts.BoundarylessorganizationBoundarylessorganizationisastructurethatnotdefinedbyorlimitedtothehorizontal,vertical,orexternalboundaries.Advantages:Highflexibleandresponsive.Utilizestalentwhereverit’sfound.Disadvantages:Lackofcontrol.Communicationdifficulties.Twotypes—virtualandnetworkAvirtualorganizationconsistsofasmallcoreoffull-timeemployeesandoutsidespecialiststemporarilyhiredasneededtoworkonprojects.Anetworkorganizationusesitsownemployeestodosomeworkactivitiesandusesnetworksofoutsidesupplierstoprovideotherproductcomponentsorworkprocesses.Threeorganizationaldesignchallengestoday.Keepingemployeesconnected.Buildingalearningorganization.Aleaningorganizationisonethathasdevelopedthecapacitytocontinuouslylearn,adapt,andchange.Managingglobalstructureissues.Chapter11managersandcommunicationDefinecommunication,interpersonalcommunication,andorganizationalcommunication.Communicationisthetransferandunderstandingofmeaning.Interpersonalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweentwoormorepeople.Organizationalcommunicationisallthepatterns,networks,andsystemsofcommunicationwithinanorganization.Thefunctionsofcommunication:(control,motivate,emotionalexpression,information)Controllingemployeebehavior.Motivatingemployees.Providingareleaseforemotionalexpressionoffeelingsandfulfillmentsocialneeds.Providinginformation.CommunicationprocessTherearesevenelementsinthecommunicationprocess.(sender,message,encoding,channel,decoding,receiver)First,thereisasenderwhohasamessage.Amessageisapurposetobeconveyed.Encodingisconvertingamessageintosymbols.Achannelisthemediumamessagetravelsalong.Decodingiswhenthereceivertranslatesasender’smessage.Finally,there’sfeedback.Thecriteriatoevaluatevariouscommunicationmethods:Feedback,complexitycapacity,breadthpotential,confidentiality,encodingease,decodingease,time-spaceconstraint,cost,interpersonalwarmth,formality,scannability,timeofconsumption.Listthecommunicationmethods.Communicationmethodsincludeface-to-facecommunication,telephonecommunication,groupmeetings,formalpresentation,memos,faxes,traditionalmail,e-mail,voicemail,employeepublications,bulletinboards,othercompanypublications,audio-andvideotapes,hotlines,computerconferences,teleconferences,andvideoconferences.Nonverbalcommunicationiscommunicationtransmittedwithoutwords.Thebest-knowntypesarebodylanguageandverbalintonationThebarrierstoeffectiveinterpersonalcommunication:Barriers:FilteringEmotionsInformationoverloadDefensivenessLanguageNationalcultureWaystoovercome:UsingfeedbackSimplifyinglanguageListeningactivelyConstrainingemotionsWatchingfornonverbalcluesContrastformalandinformalcommunicationFormalcommunicationreferstocommunicationthattakesplacewithinprescribedorganizationalworkarrangements.Informalcommunicationisnotdefinedbyanorganization’sstructurehierarchy.Directionofcommunicationflow:downward,upward,lateral,diagonal.(Diagonalcommunicationiscommunicationthatcrossesbothworkareasandorganizationallevels.)Threetypesofcommunicationnetworks:Inachainnetwork,communicationflowsaccordingtothechainofcommand,bothdownwardandupward.Inawheelnetwork,communicationflowsbetweenaclearidentifiableandstrongleaderandothersinaworkteam.Inanall-channelnetwork,communicationflowsfreelyamongallmembersinaworkteam.Discusshowmanagersshouldhandlethegrapevine.Managersshouldmanagethegrapevineasanimportantinformationnetwork.Theycanminimizethenegativeconsequencesofrumorsbycommunicatingwithemployeesmoreopenly,fully,andhonestly.Howtechnologyaffectsmanagerialcommunication.Technologyhasradicallychangedthewayorganizationalmemberscommunicate.Ithassignificantlyimprovedamanager’sabilitytomonitorperformance.Ithasallowedemployeestohavemorecompleteinformationtomakefasterdecisions.Ithasprovidedemployeesmoreopportunitiestocollaborateandshareinformation.Ithasmadeitpossibleforpeopletobefullyaccessible,anytime,anywhere.Howinformationtechnologyaffectsorganization.ITaffectsorganizationsbyaffectingthewaythatorganizationalmemberscommunicate,shareinformation,anddotheirwork.Communicationissuesintoday’sorganizations.Thetwomainchallengesofmanagingcommunicationinaninternetworldare(1)legalandsecurityissuesand(2)lackofpersonalinteraction.Organizationcanmanageknowledgebymakingiteasierforemployeestocommunicateandsharetheirknowledgesothattheycanlearnfromeachotherwaystodotheirworkmoreeffectivelyandefficiently.Onewayisbuildingonlineinformationdatabasesthatemployeescanaccess.Anotherwayiscreatingcommunitiesofpractice.Communicatingwithcustomersisanimportantmanagerialissuebecausewhatcommunicationtakesplaceandhowittakesplacecansignificantlyaffectacustomer’ssatisfactionwiththeserviceandthelikelihoodofbeingarepeatcustomer.Politicalcorrectnessaffectscommunicationsinthatitsometime