欧洲空气污染情况分析报告-外文版培训课件

POLITICS

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SOCIETYAirpollutioninEuropeCHAPTER

01OverviewAnnualattributabledeathsasaresultoflongtermexposuretofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)andozoneairpollutionworldwide(inmillions)GlobalannualdeathsduetoPM2.5andozoneairpollutionLowestimate11.19MedianestimateHighestimate121088.346.325.6365.133.63420AllcauseexcessdeathsAttributabletoambientairpollutionfromfossilfueluse3Description:Theglobalnumberofallcauseexcessdeathsduetooutdoorfineparticulateandozoneairpollutionisestimatedat8.34millionperyear.Approximately62percentofthesedeathsareattributabletoambientairpollutionfromfossilfueluse.TherearenumerouscausesofdeathlinkedtoPM2.5exposure,suchasstroke,ischemicheartdisease,andlungcancer.ReadmoreNote(s):Worldwide;2019;Figuresarebasedontheobservedandmodelledexposurelevelsfor2019Source(s):BMJOpen;Expert(s)(JosLelieveldetal)ShareoftheurbanpopulationoftheEuropeanUnionexposedtoairpollutionlevelsaboveEUstandardsandWHOguidelinesin2021,bypollutantEU-27urbanpopulationexposedtoairpollutionconcentrationsabovestandards2021EUairqualitystandardsWHOairqualityguidelines120%100%80%60%40%20%0%97%94%90%76%64%14%10%10%1%1%1%1%PM2.5*PM10O3NO2*BaPSO2*4Description:In2021,lessthanonepercentoftheEuropeanUnion'surbanpopulationwereexposedtoconcentrationsoffineparticulatematter(PM2.5)aboveEUairqualitystandards.However,EUairqualitystandardsaremuchlessstrictthanthoserecommendedbytheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO).WhenWHOguidelinesaretakenintoaccount,almost100percentoftheEU'surbanpopulationwereexposedtolevelsofPM2.5thataredamagingtohealth.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;*Figuresarebelow1%.EUairqualitystandardsforeachpollutant:PM2.5—populationexposedtoconcentrationsabove25µg/m3.PM10—populationexposedtodailyconcentrationsexceeding50µg/m3formorethan35daysper[...]

ReadmoreSource(s):EEAAveragefineparticulatematter(PM2.5)concentrationsincapitalcitiesinEuropein2023(inmicrogramspercubicmeterofair)MostpollutedcapitalcitiesbasedonPM2.5concentrationinEurope2023PM2.5concentrationinµg/m³05101520253035Sarajevo(BA)Skopje(MK)Belgrade(RS)Athens(EL)Tirana(AL)28.624.618.816.716.7Bucharest(RO)Pristina(XK)Zagreb(HR)Nicosia(CY)Warsaw(PL)Rome(IT)15.815.214.914.413.213.1Sofia(BG)12Bratislava(SK)11.85Description:SarajevowasthemostpollutedcapitalcityinEuropein2023,withanaveragePM2.5concentrationof28.4microgramspercubicmeterofair(μg/m³).ThislevelofairpollutionwasalmostsixtimeshigherthanWorldHealthOrganizationguidelines.ThesecondmostpollutedcapitalcityinEuropethatyearwasSkopje,NorthMacedonia,withanaveragePM2.5concentrationof24.6μg/m³.ReadmoreNote(s):Europe;2023Source(s):IQAirNumberofprematuredeathsattributabletoshort-termexposuretoairpollutionintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)in2021,bypollutantPrematuredeathsrelatedtoairpollutionintheEuropeanUnion2021,bypollutantNumberofdeaths050,000100,000150,000200,000250,000300,000Fineparticulatematter(PM2.5)*Nitrogendioxide(NO₂)**Ozone(O₃)***253,00052,00022,0006Description:Exposuretofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)concentrationsaboveWHOAQlimitswasresponsibleformorethan250,000prematuredeathsacrosstheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)in2021.Meanwhile,exposuretonitrogendioxide(NO₂)concentrationsaboveguidelinelevelsledtoanadditional52,000prematuredeathsintheEUthatyear.Airpollutioncancausemanyhealthissues,suchaslungcancer,asthma,andstrokes.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2021;*ExposuretoPM2.5concentrationsabovethe2021WHOAQguidelinelevelof5µg/m³.**ExposuretoNO₂concentrationsabovethe2021WHOAQguidelinelevelof10µg/m³.***AcuteexposuretoO₃.Attributabledeathsare[...]

ReadmoreSource(s):EEAEconomiccostsofairpollutionfromthelargestindustrialplantsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from2012to2021(inbillioneuros)IndustrialairpollutioncostsintheEuropeanUnion2012-2021VOLYmethodVSLmethod6005004003002001000536.7491.4471.5470.7431.3434.1414.9354.4352.7326.6318.8304.9295.3288.8276.5276.2265.1231.4219.4199.920122013201420152016201720182019202020217Description:TheannualcostofairpollutionfromthelargestindustrialplantsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)averagedbetween268and428billioneurosperyearfrom2012to2021.Althoughcostsdecreasedin2021,damagesfromindustrialairpollutionstillrepresentedroughlytwopercentoftheEU'sGDPthatyear.ꢀApproximatelyhalfofthesecostswereattributabletojustonepercentofthemostpollutingindustrialfacilitiesstudied,themajorityofwhichwerecoalpowerplants.ꢀNevertheless,the[...]

ReadmoreNote(s):Europe,EU;2012to2021;Europricebase:2021.Basedonairpollutionfromthe10,000largestfacilitiesinEurope.Source(s):EEACHAPTER

02EmissionsTotalemissionsofselectedairpollutantsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from1990to2021(in1,000metrictons)AirpollutantemissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)1990-2021,bypollutantCONH3NMVOCNOxPM2.5PM10SOx140,000120,000100,00080,00060,00040,00020,0000199019952000200520102015202020219/statistics/1171157/air-pollutant-emission-european-union-eu-28Emissionsofnitrogenoxides(NOx)intheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)totaled5.6millionmetrictonsin2021.Since1990,NOxemissionsintheEU-27havefallenby63percent.RoadtransportationproducesthehighestvolumeofNOxemissionsintheEU.ReadmoreNote(s):EUSource(s):EEAPercentchangeinairpollutantemissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from1990to2021AirpollutantemissionchangeintheEU-271990-2021,bypollutantEmissionreductionsfrom1990levels-90%

-80%

-70%

-60%-100%Carbonmonoxide(CO)-50%-40%-30%-20%-10%0%-68.77%Ammonia(NH3)Non-methanevolatileorganiccompound(NMVOC)Nitrogenoxides(NOx)-31.94%-59.41%-62.74%Particulatematter(PM2.5)-50.26%Particulatematter(PM10)-51.71%Sulfuroxides(SOx)-93.45%10Description:EmissionsofkeyairpollutantsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)havefallenconsiderablyoverthepastthreedecades,owingtofactorslikestricteremissionsregulations.Sulfuroxide(SOx)emissionsfellbymorethan90percentbetween1990and2021,whilenitrogenoxides(NOx)droppedbyroughly63percent.Boththesepollutantsareharmfultotheenvironmentandhumanhealth.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;1990to2021Source(s):EEA;BlackcarbonemissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from2000to2021(in1,000metrictons)BlackcarbonemissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)2000-2021400345350300250200150100503202912292222152151981931880200020052010201520162017201820192020202111Description:BlackcarbonemissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)totaled193thousandmetrictonsin2021,adecreaseof2.5percentfrom2020levels.EU-27blackcarbonemissionshavefallenby44percentsince2000.Blackcarbon(BC)isashort-livedclimatepollutant,andacomponentoffineparticulatematter.Short-livedclimatepollutantshaveashorterlifespanthancarbondioxide,butcanhaveagreaterimpactonglobalwarming.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2000to2021Source(s):EEAPM2.5emissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)in2000and2021,bymemberstate(in1,000metrictons)PM2.5emissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)2000-2021,bymemberstatePM2.5emissionsinthousandmetrictons20212000200050100150250300350400297PolandFrance293189376149ItalySpain205135185116RomaniaGermanyPortugalHungaryGreeceBulgariaCroatiaCzechia1068316545666638364831353627245012Description:PolandhadthehighestPM2.5emissionsintheEuropeanUnionin2021,atalmost300thousandmetrictons.Thisaccountedforroughly22percentofEuropeanUnionPM2.5emissionsthatyear.PM2.5areparticulatematterwithadiameterof2.5micrometersorless.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;*PM2.5=Fineparticulatematter(particlesmeasuring2.5μmorless)Gg=1gigagram=1,000metrictons

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ReadmoreSource(s):EEAPM10emissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)in2000and2021,bymemberstate(ingigagrams)PM10emissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)2000-2021,bymemberstatePM10emissionsinthousandmetrictons20212502000050100150200300350400450500550388PolandFrance406270481215SpainItaly295293200184GermanyRomaniaPortugalGreeceHungaryCroatiaBulgariaCzechia303157139585784127537250484363703713Description:PolandwasthebiggestcontributortoPM10emissionsintheEuropeanUnionin2021,with388thousandmetrictons.ThehighPM10concentrationsinPolandcanbeattributedtothecountry'suseofcoalpower.MostEUmemberstateshaveexperiencedconsiderablereductionsinPM10emissionssince2000.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2000and2021;*PM10=Coarseparticulatematter(particlesmeasuring10μmorless)Gg=1gigagram=1,000metrictons

ReadmoreSource(s):EEACHAPTER

03SourcesDistributionofselectedairpollutantemissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)2021,bysectorBreakdownofairpollutantemissionsintheEU-272021,bysectorEnergyproductionanddistributionRoadtransportAgricultureEnergyuseinindustryNon-roadtransportWasteResidential,commercial,andinstitutionalIndustrialprocessesandproductuse120%100%80%60%40%20%0%SOxHgNOxPbCOPM2.5PM10NH315Description:Thedistributionofairpollutantsourcesvariesgreatlydependingonthepollutant.Forexample,agriculturewasresponsiblefor94percentofammonia(NH3)emissionsintheEuropeanUnionin2021,butitscontributiontootherairpollutantemissionsisminimal.Meanwhile,thecommercial,residential,andinstitutionalsectorwasthelargestsourceofcarbonmonoxide,PM2.5,andPM10emissionsin2021,whileroadtransportationwasresponsibleforthelargestshareofNitrogen[...]

ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2021;Figuresmaynottotal100%duetoroundingSource(s):EEATotalparticulatematteremissions(PM2.5)intheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from2000to2021,bysector(in1,000metrictons)PM2.5particleemissionsintheEuropeanUnion2000-2021,bysectorEnergysupplyManufacturingandextractiveindustryTransportResidential,commercial&institutionalAgricultureWastemanagement2,5002,0001,5001,00050002000200520102015202116Description:PM2.5emissionsintheEuropeanUnionhavefallenbymorethan30percentsince2000.Theenergysupplysectorobservedthelargestpercentagedropbetween2000and2021,at75percent.Bycomparison,PM2.5emissionsfromtheresidential,commericlal,andinstitutionalsectorreducedbyjustninepercentduringthesameperiod.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2000to2021Source(s):EEATotalnitrogenoxide(NOx)emissionsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from1990to2021,bysector(in1,000metrictons)NitrogenoxideemissionsintheEuropeanUnion1990-2021,bysectorEnergysupplyManufacturingandextractiveindustryTransportResidential,commercial&institutionalAgricultureWaste16,00014,00012,00010,0008,0006,0004,0002,0000199019952000200520082010201520162017201820192020202117Description:NitrogenoxideemissionsintheEuropeanUnionhavefallensignificantlyacrossseveralsectorsoverthepastfewdecades.In1990,thetransportationsectoremitted6.9millionmetrictonsofNOx,butby2021thisfigurehadfallentoroughly2.4millionmetrictons.Neverthless,transportationremainsthebiggestcontributortonitrogenoxideemissionsintheEUbyfar.ꢀNOxareagroupofgasescomposedofnitrogenandoxygen,whichincludenitrogendioxide.

ReadmoreNote(s):EU;1990to2021Source(s):EEAVariationsinairpollutionfromtransportationmodesintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from1990to2021,bypollutanttypeChangeintransportsectorairpollutantemissionsintheEU-271990-2021,bymodeChangeinemissionsrelativeto1990PM2.5PM10-50%NH3SOxNMVOCs0%NOxCO-150%Lightdutyvehicles-100%50%100%150%HeavydutyvehiclesMopeds&motorcyclesRailwaysDomesticnavigationInternationalnavigation18Description:EmissionsofmostmajorairpollutantsfromtransportationintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)havedecreasedsince1990,owingtovariouspolicymeasures.Lightdutyandheavydutyvehicleshaveexperiencedoverallemissionsreductionsinallbutoneairpollutantsince1990,withNH3emissionsrising124and44percent,respectively.Meanwhile,internationalshippingandinternationalaviationhavebothseenemissionsgrowthwithseveralairpollutants,includingCO,NOx,andNH3.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;1990to2021Source(s):EEAEconomiccostsofairpollutionfromthelargestindustrialplantsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)from2012to2021,bysector(inmillioneuros)ExternalcostsofindustrialairpollutionintheEuropeanUnion2012-2021,bysectorEnergyproduction

Heavyindustry

Fuelproductionandprocessing

Lightindustry

Wastemanagement

Livestock

Wastewatertreatment350,000300,000250,000200,000150,000100,00050,0000201220132014201520162017201820192020202119Description:TheannualcostofairpollutionfromthelargestindustrialplantsintheEuropeanUnion(EU-27)averagedroughly268billioneurosperyearfrom2012to2021,basedontheVOLYmethod.Althoughtheenergysectorhasconsistentlyrepresentedroughly50percentofthesecostsperyear,economicdamageslinkedtoenergyproductionhavefallenby46percentsince2012.Thisisduetoenergysectoremissionsdecreasingatafasterratewhencomparedtoothersectorsduringthisperiod.[...]

ReadmoreNote(s):Europe,EU;2012to2021;Europricebase:2021.Basedonairpollutionfromthe10,000largestfacilitiesinEurope.Source(s):EEACHAPTER

04ExposureShareofurbanpopulationexposedtopollutantconcentrationsaboveEUairqualitystandardsintheEuropeanUnionfrom2000to2021,bypollutanttypePercentageofurbanpopulationexposedtoairpollutantsintheEU-272000-2021PM2.5*PM10O3NO270%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%-10%2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

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2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

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2019

2020

202121Description:TheshareoftheEuropeanUnion'surbanpopulationexposedtoairpollutantconcentrationsaboveEUstandardshasfallenoverthepasttwodecades.In2021,justonepercentoftheEUurbanpopulationwasexposedtohighlevelsofnitrogendioxide(NO2)concentrations,comparedto27percentin2000.However,10percentoftheEUurbanpopulationwerestillexposedtohighlevelsofPM10andozone(O3)in2021.

ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2000to2021Source(s):EEAShareofEuropeanpopulationthatlivesinareaswherefineparticle(PM2.5)concentrationsareaboveWHOrecommendedlimitsin2022,bycountryShareofpopulationfacingairpollutionaboveWHOlimitsinEurope2022,bycountryAverageconcentrationofPM2.5inµg/m3BelowWHOlimitsUpto2xthelimitsUpto3x60Upto4xOver4x8002040100120IcelandFinlandNorwaySwedenEstoniaIrelandDenmarkLiechtensteinLuxembourgMaltaUnitedKingdomLithuania22Description:NearlyeveryoneinEuropewasexposedtoairpollutionabovetherecommendedWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)guidelinesin2022.ꢀItalywasparticularlyaffectedbypoorairqualitythatyear,withapproximately18percentofthecountry'spopulationexposedtoPM2.5levelsmorethanfourtimeshigherthanthecurrentWHOPM2.5recommendedlimits.ExposuretohighPM2.5levelscanleadtoanincreasedriskofrespiratoryandheartdisease,andcanalsoresultinprematuredeath.

ReadmoreNote(s):Europe;2022;Figuresmaynottotal100%duetorounding.Source(s):DeutscheWelle;EarthSystemScienceData(CopernicusAtmosphereMonitoringService)Annualaveragenumberofdayswhenaveragelevelsoffineparticulatematter(PM2.5)exceededWorldHealthOrganizationmaximumdailylimitsinEurope2003-2019,bycountryAnnualaveragenumberofPM2.5uncleanairdaysinEurope2003-2019,bycountryNumberofuncleandays050100150200250300350SerbiaNorthMacedoniaAlbania326.3290.8288.9MontenegroBulgaria280.9274.3RomaniaGreece250.8246.8PolandHungary232.3223.9SlovakiaCroatia207.4206.5Cyprus184.7Czechia167.223Description:SerbiaexperiencedthehighestnumberofPM2.5uncleanairdaysinEuropefrom2003to2019.Onaverage,therewere326daysinwhichPM2.5concentrationsinSerbiaexceededꢀWorldHealthOrganizationAirQualityguidelines.ThehighestnumberofPM2.5uncleanairdaysweremostlyobservedinEasternEuropeancountriesduringthisperiod.PM2.5(fineparticulatematter)aresmallparticlesthatcanembedthemselvesdeepintothelungandhavebeenlinkedtonumeroushealth[...]

ReadmoreNote(s):Europe;2003to2019;Basedonshort-termexposureofeachindividualduring2003to2019.Source(s):BarcelonaInstituteforGlobalHealth(ISGlobal)AveragePM2.5concentrationinthemostpollutedcitiesinEuropein2023(inmicrogramspercubicmeterofair)MostpollutedcitiesbasedonPM2.5concentrationinEurope2023PM2.5concentrationinµg/m³15

2005102530354045Pljevlja(ME)Torchiarolo(IT)Tuzla(BA)40.138.136.236.1Zenica(BA)CeglieMessapica(IT)BijeloPolje(ME)Strumica(MK)Čačak(ME)35.634.531.631.1Tetovo(MK)Vranje(RS)30.930.8BanjaLuka(BA)Doboj(BA)NoviGrad(BA)30.129.929.229.128.8Bihać(BA)Sokolac(BA)24Description:PljevljainMontenegrohadthehighestaveragePM2.5concentrationrecordedinEuropein2023,atroughly40µg/m³.AccordingtotheWorldHealthOrganization,annualaveragePM2.5concentrationsshouldnotexceedfiveµg/m³.

ReadmoreNote(s):Europe;2023Source(s):IQAirAverageconcentrationoffineparticles(PM2.5)inthemostpopulatedcitiesinEuropefrom2021to2022(inmicrogramspercubicmeterofair)AveragePM2.5levelsinthemostpopulatedcitiesinEurope2021-2022AverageconcentrationofPM2.5inµg/m30246810121416182022Milan(IT)*Warsaw(PL)Bucharest(RO)Rome(IT)Budapest(HU)Barcelona(ES)Naples(IT)*Berlin(DE)19.716.115.7131312.612.412.2Paris(FR)*11.2Vienna(AT)Hamburg(DE)Madrid(ES)10.2109.2Munich(DE)Lisbon(PT)8.17.7Stockholm(SE)*4.825Description:MilanhadthehighestaveragePM2.5concentrationamongEurope'smostpopulatedcitiesin2021and2022,with19.7µg/m3.MilansitsinthePoValleyofNorthernItaly,whichisoneofEurope'smostpollutedregionsduetoitsgeographicallocationandproximitytoindustrialactivities.Poland'scapitalWarsawrankedsecond,withaveragePM2.5concentrationsof16.1µg/m3basedonlevelsmeasuredin2021and2022.Warsawispronetopoorairqualityduetofactorssuchasburningsolid[...]

ReadmoreNote(s):Europe;2021to2022;IncludesEU-27memberstates,Switzerland,Norway,andIceland.;*Greatercityareas.Thereleasedatehasbeensetasdateofsiteaccess.Airqualitycategoriesareasfollows:Goodforlevelsoffineparticulate[...]

ReadmoreSource(s):EEAAverageconcentrationoffineparticles(PM2.5)intheleastpollutedcitiesinEuropefrom2021to2022(inmicrogramspercubicmeterofair)AveragePM2.5concentrationsintheleastpollutedcitiesinEurope2021-2022AverageconcentrationofPM2.5inµg/m301234567Faro(PT)Umeå(SE)3.73.9Uppsala(SE)4Funchal(PT)Tallinn(EE)4.24.3Tampere/Tammerfors(FI)Reykjavik(IS)4.34.3Norrköping(SE)Stockholm(SE)*Narva(EE)4.74.84.9Bergen(NO)Helsinki/Helsingfors(FI)Tartu(EE)5.25.35.75.85.8SaintDenis(FR)Trondheim(NO)26Description:Faro,thecapitalofPortugal'sAlgarveregion,wastheleastpollutedcityinEuropebasedonlevelsmeasuredin2021and2022.WithanaveragePM2.5concentrationof3.7microgramspercubicmeterofair(µg/m3),Faro'sairqualitywasalmosteighttimescleanerthaninꢀEurope'smostpollutedcity.ReadmoreNote(s):Europe;2021to2022;*Greatercityareas.Thereleasedatehasbeensetasdateofsiteaccess.Airqualitycategoriesareasfollows:GoodforlevelsoffineparticulatematterthatdonotexceedtheannualguidelinevalueoftheWorld[...]

ReadmoreSource(s):EEACHAPTER

05HealthimpactsNumberofprematuredeathsattributabletofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)exposureintheEuropeanUnionfrom2005to2021AnnualdeathsattributabletoPM2.5exposureintheEuropeanUnion2005-2021500,000450,000400,000350,000300,000250,000200,000150,000100,00050,000020052007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212030target*28Description:TheestimatednumberofprematuredeathsintheEuropeanUnionattributabletofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)exposurein2021was253,305.Thisshowsareductionofroughly41percentcomparedtothoseobservedin2005.TheEUaimstoreducethenumberofPM2.5linkeddeathsby55percentfrom2005levelsby2030,undertheZeroPollutionActionPlan.ReadmoreNote(s):EU;2005to2021Source(s):EEAMortalityduetoexposuretofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)inEuropein2021,bycausePrematuredeathsattributabletoPM2.5exposureinEurope2021,bycauseNumberofattributabledeaths100,000

150,000050,00087,893200,000250,000300,000350,000IschemicheartdiseaseStroke64,171Diabetesmelitus42,671Chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease

19,233Lungcancer

18,334Asthma*all-causemortality293,00029Description:Therewereanestimated293,000deathsattributabletoexposuretofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)inEuropein2021.TheleadingcauseofdeathattributabletoPM2.5exposurewasischemicheartdisease,followedbystroke,diabetes,andchronicobstructivepulmonarydisease.ReadmoreNote(s):Europe,EU;2021;DataconsidersprematuredeathsattributabletoexposuretoPM2.5abovethe2021WHOAQguidelinelevelof5µg/m³.;*Lessthan10

PM2.5referstoatmosphericparticulatematter(PM)thathasadiameterofless[...]

ReadmoreSource(s):EEANumberofprematuredeathsattributabletofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)exposureinEuropein2021,bycountryDeathsattributabletoPM2.5exposureinEurope2021,bycountryNumberofattributabledeaths05,00010,00015,00020,00025,00030,00035,00040,00045,00050,000PolandItaly47,30046,800GermanyFranceRomania32,30020,10019,600SerbiaSpain14,80014,100Bulgaria10,800HungaryGreece10,40010,000Bosnia&HerzegovinaCzechia9,0008,500Netherlands5,70030Description:Thehighestnumberofdeathsattributabletofineparticulatematter(PM2.5)exposu