当代市场调研 （原第12版）指导手册 Instructor Manual ch03 建立营销洞察力的测量

McDaniel&Gates–MarketingResearch,12thEdition Instructor’sManual

Copyright©2021JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. 3-

CHAPTER3

MeasurementtoBuildMarketingInsights

LEARNINGOBJECTIVES

1.Analyzetheconceptofmeasurement.

2.Definewhatisaconcept.

3.Learnthenatureofaconstruct.

4.Writeaconceptconstitutively.

5.Defineaconceptoperationally.

6.Understandhowtocreateameasurementscale.

7.Evaluatethereliabilityandvalidityofameasurement.

8.Understandtheconceptofscaling.

9.Comparethevarioustypesofattitudescales.

10.Examinesomebasicconsiderationsinselectingatypeofscale.

KEYTERMS

Balancedscales

Comparativescales

Constantsumscales

Constitutivedefinition

Constructs

Constructvalidity

Convergentvalidity

Criterion–relatedvalidity

Discriminatevalidity

Equivalentformreliability

Facevalidity

Internalconsistencyreliability

Intervalscales

Likertscale

Measurement

Multidimensionalscales

Netpromoterscore(NPS)

Nominalscales

Non-balancedscale

Noncomparativescales

Operationalscales

Ordinalscales

Pairedcomparisonscales

Predictivevalidity

Purchase–intentscale

Rank-orderscales

Ratioscales

Reliability

Rule

Scale

Scaling

Semanticdifferentialscale

Split-halftechnique

Stability

Stapelscale

Test-retestreliability

Unidimensionalscales

Validity

CHAPTERSUMMARY

Thischapterexaminestheconceptofmeasurement,aprocessattheheartofmarketingresearch.Measurementistheprocessofassigningnumbersorlabelstoobjects,persons,states,oreventsinaccordancewithspecificrulestorepresentquantitiesorqualitiesofattributes.Theprocessconsistsofsixsteps.1)Identifytheconceptofinterest;2)Developaconstruct;3)Definetheconceptconstitutively;4)Definetheconceptoperationally;5)Developameasurementscale;6)Evaluatethereliabilityandvalidityofthemeasurement.Reliabilityisthedegreetowhichmeasuresarefreefromrandomerrorandtherefore,provideconsistentdata.Asurveyissaidtobereliableifitconsistentlyproducessimilarscores.Therearethreewaystotestreliability,test-retest,equivalentform,andinternalconsistency.Validityaddressestheissueofwhetherwhatwetriedtomeasurewasactuallymeasured.Thereareseveraltypesofvalidity,includingfacevalidity,contentvalidity,criterion-relatedvalidity,concurrentvalidity,andconstructvalidity.

Next,thechapterdiscussesscaling,includingunidimensionalscales,multidimensionalscales,attitudemeasurementscales,graphicratingscales,itemizedratingscales,rand-orderedscales,pairedcomparisons,constantsumscales,semanticdifferentialscales,Stapelscales,Likertscales,andpurchase-intentscales.Itcloseswithadiscussionoftheconsiderationsinselectingascale,typesofscales,balancedandnonbalancedscales,thenumberofscalecategories,andforcedversusnonforcedchoice.

QUESTIONSFORREVIEWANDCRITICALTHINKING

Whatismeasurement?

Measurementistheprocessofassigningnumbersorlabelstoobjects,persons,states,oreventsinaccordancewithspecificrulestorepresentquantitiesorqualitiesofattributes.

Differentiatebetweenthefourtypesofmeasurementscales,anddiscussthetypesofinformationcontainedineach.

Nominalscalespartitiondataintocategoriesthataremutuallyexclusiveandcollectivelyexhaustive.Everyobservationwillfallintooneofseveralcategoriesandintoonlyone.Anexampleofacategoryinanominalscaleis:Whatisyourgender?_____Male______Female

Ordinalscaleshavethelabelsofnominalscalesplustheabilitytoorderdata.Numbersareusedtorankthecategories.Thenumbersarenotindicativeofanyvalueoramount,butaresimplytoputinrankorder.

Intervalscaleshavecategorieswhicharebrokenintoequalsegments.Thenumbersusedascategoriesdohavemeaningandmeasurehowmuchofatraitanobservationhas.Intervalscalescanbeusedtocomputemeans,standarddeviations,andcorrelationcoefficients.

Ratioscaleshavealloftheadvantagesoftheotherscalesplusithasameaningfulorigin.Aratioscaleisindicativeofthetruevalueoramountofthevariablebeingobserved.Examplesoftheseareweight,height,andpopulationcounts.

Howdoesreliabilitydifferfromvalidity?Giveexamplesofeach.

Reliabilityisthedegreetowhichmeasuresarefreefromrandomerrorand,therefore,provideconsistentdata.

Validityisthedegreetowhichtheinstrumentmeasurestheconstructitismeanttomeasure.Ifasurveyinstrumentisgiventothesamesampletwiceandthedifferenceinthescoresisnearzero,theinstrumentissaidtobereliable.However,iftheinstrumentwasmeanttomeasurepreferencesforsoftdrinksbutinsteadmeasuredpreferencesforallbeverages,itisnotvalid.

Giveanexampleofascalethatwouldbereliablebutnotvalid.Alsogiveanexampleofascalethatwouldbereliablebutnotvalid.Alsogiveanexampleofascalethatwouldbevalidbutnotreliable.

Ifweweretryingtomeasurecustomersatisfaction,butthequestionnaireconsistentlymeasuredcustomerloyalty,thescalewouldbereliableinthatitmeasuredtheconstructconsistently.However,itwouldnotbevalid,becauseitdidnotmeasurewhatwasintended.Ifaquestionnairemeasurescustomerserviceaccurately,buttheresultsaresignificantlydifferentwhenthesurveyisrepeatedaweeklater,itisnotreliable.

Whatarethreemethodsofassessingreliability?

Test-retestreliability–Repeatthesamesurveytwoweekslaterwiththesamesampleofpeople.

Equivalentform–Usesimilarquestionnaires,andthencomparethecorrelationsofsimilartestitems.

Internalconsistency–usesameinstrumentwithtwodifferentsamples,orsometimessplitthesampleintohalves.

Whatarethreemethodsofassessingvalidity?

Facevalidity-Theresearcherhastomakeajudgmentastowhetherthemeasure“lookslike”itmeasureswhatitissupposedto.

Contentvalidity-Doesthescaleprovideadequatecoverageofthetopicunderstudy?Forexample,researchhasidentifiedfivesexes.(That’strue.)Ifaccuratemeasurementoftherespondents’sexisimportanttotheresearch,thenonlyofferingtwochoices,MaleandFemale,isinadequatetoprovidecontentvalidity.

Criterion-relatedvalidity-Howwellcanthemeasurementinstrumentpredictavariable?

Dividetheclassintoteamsoffourorfive.EachteamshouldthengototheInternetandfindtheresultsofasurveywithdata.Eachteamshouldthendeterminethefacevalidityandcontentvalidityoftheresearch.Also,eachteamshouldsuggestamethodofassessingreliabilityofthesurvey.

Studentresultswillvary.

Discusssomeoftheconsiderationsinselectingarating,ranking,orpurchase-intentscale.

Manyquestionsariseinselectingascale.Considerationsincludethenatureoftheconstructbeingmeasured,typeofscale,balancedversusnonbalancedscale,numberofscalecategories,andforcedversusnonforcedchoice.Thebottomlineisthatthescaleselectedshouldbetheonethatreturnsthebestdatafortheissueunderconsiderations.

Whataresomeoftheargumentsforandagainsthavinganeutralpointonascale?

Withanevennumberofscalecategories,thereisnoneutralpoint.Withoutaneutralpoint,respondentsareforcedtoindicatesomedegreeofpositiveornegativefeelingsonanissue.Personswhoaretrulyneutralarenotallowedtoexpresstheirneutrality.Ontheotherhand,somemarketingresearcherssaythatputtinganeutralpointonascalegivestherespondentaneasywayout,allowingthepersonwithnoreallystrongopiniontoavoidconcentratingonhisorheractualfeelings.

Ifthequestioninvolvessomethingaboutwhichitisreasonablefortherespondenttohavelittle-or-nofeelingsthenhavinganeutralpointmakessense.Ontheotherhand,ifitissomethingwhereunreasonablefortherespondenttohavelittle-or-nofeelings,suchasanewfeeforstudents,thenitmakessensetonothaveaneutralpoint.

Compareandcontrastthesemanticdifferentialscale,Stapelscale,andLikertscale.Underwhatconditionswouldaresearcheruseeachone?

Semanticdifferentialscale.Measurementscalesthatexaminethestrengthsandweaknessesofaconceptbyhavingtherespondentrankitbetweendichotomouspairsofwordsorphrasesthatcouldbeusedtodescribeit;themeansoftheresponsesarethenplottedasaprofileorimage.Thesemanticdifferentialisaquickandefficientmeansofexaminingthestrengthsandweaknessesofaproductorcompanyimage,versusthoseofthecompetition.However,itsuffersfromalackofstandardizationandsuffersfromthehaloeffect.

Stapelscale.Measurementscalesthatrequiretherespondenttorate,onascalerangingfrom+5to−5,howcloselyandinwhatdirectionadescriptoradjectivefitsagivenconcept.Itisamodificationofthesemanticdifferential.TheprimaryadvantageoftheStapelscaleisthatitenablestheresearchertoavoidthearduoustaskofcreatingbipolaradjectivepairs.Thescalemayalsopermitfinerdiscriminationinmeasuringattitudes.Adrawbackisthatdescriptoradjectivescanbephrasedinapositive,neutral,ornegativevein,andthechoiceofphrasinghasbeenshowntoaffectthescaleresultsandtheperson’sabilitytorespond.

Likertscale.Measurementscalesinwhichtherespondentspecifiesalevelofagreementordisagreementwithstatementsexpressingeitherafavorableoranunfavorableattitudetowardtheconceptunderstudy.WiththeLikertscale,therespondentisrequiredtoconsideronlyonestatementatatime,withthescalerunningfromoneextremetotheother.Likert-likescalesareverypopular.Theyarequickandeasytoconstructandcanbeadministeredbytelephone,viaanInternetpanel,webcommunity,oramobiledevice.

DevelopaLikertscaletoevaluatetheparksandrecreationdepartmentinyourcity.

Studentanswerswillvary.Withratingsfromstronglydisagreetostronglyagree,somepossiblequestionsareasfollows:

Thereareanadequatenumberofparksinyourcity.

Theparksinyourcityareconvenientlylocated.

Theparksinyourcityhaveadequateequipment.

Theparksinyourcityarekeptclean.

Developapurchase-intentscaleforstudentseatingattheuniversity’scafeteria.Howmightthereliabilityandvalidityofthisscalebemeasured?Whydoyouthinkpurchase-intentscalesaresopopularincommercialmarketingresearch?

Studentanswerswillvary.Onepossiblescaleisshownbelow:

Iftheuniversity’scafeteriapriceditsmealsat$8.00andwasopenconvenienthoursforyou,wouldyou:

Definitelyeatatthecafeteria

Probablyeatatthecafeteria

Probablynoteatatthecafeteria

Definitelynoteatatthecafeteria

Wouldyourecommendeatingatthecafeteriatoyourfriends?

Definitely

Probably

Probablynot

Definitelynot

Thepurchase-intentscaleisusedofteninmarketingresearchbecauseitaddressesthe10Thescaleisveryeasytoconstruct,andconsumersaresimplyaskedtomakeasubjectivejudgmentoftheirlikelihoodofbuyinganewproduct.ultimateissueformarketingmanagers,willtheybuytheproduct(service)ornot?Reliabilityandvalidityofthisscalebemeasuredforexistingproducts(services)canbemeasuredbycomparingtheresultsofthesurveywithcurrentresults.Forexample,howdoesthedefinitelyandprobablybuyintheabovequestioncomparetocurrentsalesatthecafeteria.

Whenmightaresearcheruseagraphicratingscaleratherthananitemizedratingscale?

Graphicratingscalesofferrespondentsagraphiccontinuum,typicallyanchoredbytwoextremes.Graphicratingscalescanbeconstructedeasilyandaresimpletouse,especiallyforInternetsurveys.Theyenablearesearchertodiscernfinedistinctions,assumingthattheraterhasadequatediscriminatoryabilities.Onedisadvantageofgraphicratingscalesisthatoverlyextremeanchorstendtoforcerespondentstowardthemiddleofthescale.Also,someresearchhassuggestedthatsuchscalesarenotasreliableasitemizedratingscales.

Whatisthedifferencebetweenaratingandaranking?Whichisbestforattitudemeasurement?Why?

Itisnotuncommontohearthewordsratingandrankingusedinterchangeablybutthereisabigdistinction.Aratingaskstherespondenttocomparedifferentitemsusingthesamescale,forexample,aLikertscale.Thatis,eachitemiscomparedindependentlyoftheotheritems.Asthenumberofitemstorateincreases,thementaldifficultygoesupasalinearrate.

Arankingquestionhastherespondentcompareitemsagainstoneanother.Forexample,aquestionmightaskrespondentstorank10phonesagainstoneanother.Thatis,thecomparisonisdependentonalloftheitems.Asthenumberofitemstorankincreases,thementaldifficultygoesupmuchquickerthanlinear.

Whenaskingaboutaproductorservice,manyattitudesareequallyimportantsoitmakessensetousearatingscale.However,whenconsideringattitudesthatinvolveatradeoff,suchaspriceandquality,rankingsmakemoresense.

Developarank-orderscaleforsodapreferencesofcollegestudents.Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthistypeofscale?

Studentresponseswillvary.Oneanswerisasfollows:

Pleaserankthefollowingsodasfromtheoneyoulikethemosttotheoneyouliketheleast:

Coke _____

DietCoke _____

Pepsi _____

DietPepsi _____

Dr.Pepper _____

DietDr.Pepper _____

Rank-orderscalespossessseveraldisadvantages.Ifallofthealternativesinarespondent’schoicesetarenotincluded,theresultscouldbemisleading.Asecondproblemisthattheconceptbeingrankedmaybecompletelyoutsideaperson’schoiceset,thusproducingmeaninglessdata.Anotherlimitationisthatthescalegivestheresearcheronlyordinaldata.Nothingislearnedabouthowfaraparttheitemsstandorhowintenselytherespondentfeelsabouttherankingofanitem.Finally,theresearcherdoesnotknowwhytherespondentrankedtheitemsasheorshedid.

Explaintheconceptofscaleequivalence.

Sometimes,datathatiscollectedusingonescale(say1-5)needstobeconvertedtoanotherscale(say1-7).Inthescaleequivalenceapproach,noattemptismadetomodifythedatainanyway.Instead,thefocusisonidentifyingtheappropriatewayofreportingthatwouldenablescorestobecomecomparable.

Whyisthenetpromoterscorepopularyetcontroversial?

Netpromoterscore(NPS)isameasureofsatisfaction;thepercentageofpromotersminusthepercentageofdetractorswhenansweringaquestion.Anexampleis,“Wouldyourecommendthistoafriend?”

TheNPShasseveraladvantages.Itissimple;justasinglequestion.Theresultiseasytounderstand.Also,theNPScanbebenchmarkedsincetheprocessisstandardized.NoteveryoneisastrongsupporterofNPS.AsExhibit3.19shows,thesamescorecanmeanverydifferentthings.Also,anincreasingNPSovertimecanmeanmorepromoters,lessdetractors,orboth.Anotherissueisthoselabeledpassives.Somearguethatpassivesare,infact,notpassive.

Dividetheclassintoteams.Eachteamshouldcreatefiveadjectivepairsofphrasesthatcouldbeusedinasemanticdifferentialtomeasuretheimageofyourcollegeoruniversity.Theinstructorwillthenaggregatethesuggestionsintoasinglesemanticdifferential.Eachteammembershouldthenconductfiveinterviewswithstudentsnotintheclass.Thedatacanthenbeanalyzedlaterinthetermwhenstatisticalanalysisiscovered.(TeamExercise)

Resultswillvary.

WORKINGTHENET

GotoaWebsearchengineandlookup“validityandreliability.”Describetotheclassthenewinsightsyougainintotheseimportantconcepts.

Responseswillvary.

GototheinternetandlookupNielsenTotalMeasurement.WhatexactlyisNielsenmeasuring?Howistheconstructmeasured?Howmightonedeterminevalidityandreliability?

Measuringaudienceviewingonatelevisionandmediaconsumptionthatoccursonotherdevicesandplatforms.Whattheymeasure:

Audience

AudioMeasurement

ConsumerNeuroscience

GlobalConsumerConfidence

Mobile

MusicSalesMeasurement

Online

RetailMeasurement

RevenueManagementOptimization

SocialTV

Television

SBI(StrategicBusinessInsights)isaspinoffoftheStanfordResearchInstitute.OneofitsmostpopularproductsiscalledVALS(ValuesandLifeStyleSurvey).SBIusesVALStosegmentthemarketplaceonthebasisofpersonalitytraitsthatdriveconsumerbehavior.VALSisusedinallphasesofthemarketingmix.Thesurveycategorizesconsumersintooneofeightpersonalitytypes.GEOVALSappliesthepowerofVALStolocalmarketingeffortsbyidentifyingtheconcentrationoftheVALSconsumergroupresidingwithinaspecificblockgrouporzipcode.

Goto/VALS/presurvey.shtml,then“TaketheVALSsurvey.”

ExplainthetheorybehindthecreationofVALS.

DoyouagreewithyourVALSclassification?Learnmorebygoingto“TheVALSTypes”link.

Whatkindofscalewasusedinthesurvey?Couldothertypesofscaleshavebeenused?

Fromthewebsite:“ThepurposeoftheUSVALS™surveyistoidentifytheVALStypeofthepersontakingthesurvey.That'sit.Tofindoutaboutaperson'sproductownership,mediapreferences,hobbies,additionaldemographics,orattitudes(forexample,aboutglobalwarming),thequestionsintheVALSsurveyintegrateintolargerquestionnairesthataskaboutthesetopics.Forexample,theVALSquestionsintegrateintoGfKMRI'snationallysyndicatedSurveyoftheAmericanConsumer,whichenablesustoseethemediapreferencesofeachoftheeightVALStypes.TheVALSquestionsalsointegrateintoourownConsumerFinancialDecisions'MacroMonitorsurvey,givingusin-depthinformationabouthoweachVALStypeuses,invests,andsavesmoney.”AsreferencedonMay20,2020.

ThesurveymostlyusesafourpointLikertscale.Demographicdataisselectedusingmultiplecategories.Forexample,thereareeightpossiblecategoriesforageandfiveformaritalstatus.

REAL-LIFERESEARCH

Case3.1PNCBankConsidersChangingItsCustomerSatisfactionMeasurementScale

KeyPoints

Regularsurveyshavebeenadministeredtocustomerwhohaveinteractedwiththecompany.

Thesurveysaretypicallythree-to-fourminutequestionnairescoveringtheoverallexperienceandanumberofscaledattributestoidentifydriversofcustomersatisfactionorworkingwithbranchorcall-centeremployees.

Employeesexpressedapprehensionsastowhetherthepast-stateandfuture-statescaleswouldprovetobecomparableandiftherewouldbeanyimpactonthecustomerrecommendationscoresassociatedwithemployees.

Tounderstandthepotentialimpactofchangingthebranchandcare-centersurveyattributesfromfive-to-seven-pointscales,companyresearchersdevelopedtwoversionsofthecustomerexperiencesurveystobeadministeredwithinthiscustomerpanel.

Theresultswereanalyzedandtherewasnear-perfectalignmentbetweentop-boxscoresforthefive-pointscaledattributesandthetop-boxscoresfromtheseven-pointscaledattributes.

Questions

Whatistheconstruct,orconstructs,inthisresearch?

Constructsarespecifictypesofconceptsthatexistathigherlevelsofabstractionthandoeverydayconcepts.Constructsareinventedfortheoreticaluseandthusarelikelytocutacrossvariouspreexistingcategoriesofthought.Theconstructhereiscustomersatisfaction.

Whatlevelofmeasurementdidtheyuse?Couldtheyhaveusedadifferentlevel