平面设计中英文对照外文翻译文献

#GRAPHICDESIGNThetermgraphicdesigncanrefertoanumberofartisticandprofessionaldisciplineswhichfocusonvisualcommunicationandpresentation.Variousmethodsareusedtocreateandcombinesymbols,imagesand/orwordstocreateavisualrepresentationofideasandmessages.Agraphicdesignermayusetypography,visualartsandpagelayouttechniquestoproducethefinalresult.Graphicdesignoftenreferstoboththeprocessbywhichthecommunicationiscreatedandtheproductswhicharegenerated.Commonusesofgraphicdesignincludemagazines,advertisements,productpackagingandwebdesign.Forexample,aproductpackagemightincludealogoorotherartwork,organizedtextandpuredesignelementssuchasshapesandcolorwhichunifythepiece.Compositionisoneofthemostimportantfeaturesofgraphicdesignespeciallywhenusingpre-existingmaterialsordiverseelements.GraphicDesignspansthehistoryofhumankindfromthecavesofLascauxtothedazzlingneonsofGinza.Inboththislengthyhistoryandintherelativelyrecentexplosionofvisualcommunicationinthe20thand21stcenturies,thereissometimesablurringdistinctionandover-lappingofadvertisingart,graphicdesignandfineart.Afterall,theysharemanyofthesameelements,theories,principles,practicesandlanguages,andsometimesthesamebenefactororclient.Inadvertisingarttheultimateobjectiveisthesaleofgoodsandservices.Ingraphicdesign,“theessenceistogiveordertoinformation,formtoideas,expressionandfeelingtoartifactsthatdocumenthumanexperience.”DuringtheTangdynasty(618—906)betweenthe4thand7thcenturyA.D.woodblockswerecuttoprintontextilesandlatertoreproduceBuddhisttexts.ABuddhistscriptureprintedin868istheearliestknownprintedbook.Inlate19thcenturyEurope,especiallyintheUnitedKingdom,themovementbegantoseparategraphicdesignfromfineart.PietMondrianisknownasthefatherofgraphicdesign.Hewasafineartist,buthisuseofgridsinspiredthemoderngridsystemusedtodayinadvertising,printandweblayout.In1849,HenryColebecameoneofthemajorforcesindesigneducationinGreatBritain,informingthegovernmentoftheimportanceofdesigninhisJournalofDesignandManufactures.HeorganizedtheGreatExhibitionasacelebrationofmodernindustrialtechnologyandVictoriandesign.From1892to1896WilliamMorris'KelmscottPresspublishedbooksthataresomeofthemostsignificantofthegraphicdesignproductsoftheArtsandCraftsmovement,andmadeaverylucrativebusinessofcreatingbooksofgreatstylisticrefinementandsellingthemtothewealthyforapremium.Morrisprovedthatamarketexistedforworksofgraphicdesignintheirownrightandhelpedpioneertheseparationofdesignfromproductionandfromfineart.TheworkoftheKelmscottPressischaracterizedbyitsobsessionwithhistoricalstyles.Thishistoricismwas,however,importantasitamountedtothefirstsignificantreactiontothestalestateofnineteenth-centurygraphicdesign.Morris'work,alongwiththerestofthePrivatePressmovement,directlyinfluencedArtNouveauandisindirectlyresponsiblefordevelopmentsinearlytwentiethcenturygraphicdesigningeneral.Whooriginallycoinedtheterm“graphicdesign”appearstobeindispute.IthasbeenattributedtoRichardGuyatt,theBritishdesignerandacademic,butanothersourcesuggestsWilliamAddisonDwiggins,anAmericanbookdesignerintheearly20thcenturyThesignageintheLondonUndergroundisaclassicofthemoderneraandusedafontdesignedbyEdwardJohnstonin1916.Inthe1920s,Sovietconstructivismapplied'intellectualproduction'indifferentspheresofproduction.ThemovementsawindividualisticartasuselessinrevolutionaryRussiaandthusmovedtowardscreatingobjectsforutilitarianpurposes.Theydesignedbuildings,theatersets,posters,fabrics,clothing,furniture,logos,menus,etc.JanTschicholdcodifiedtheprinciplesofmoderntypographyinhis1928book,NewTypography.Helaterrepudiatedthephilosophyheespousedinthisbookasbeingfascistic,butitremainedveryinfluential.Tschichold,BauhaustypographerssuchasHerbertBayerandLaszloMoholy-Nagy,andElLissitzkyarethefathersofgraphicdesignasweknowittoday.Theypioneeredproductiontechniquesandstylisticdevicesusedthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.Thefollowingyearssawgraphicdesigninthemodernstylegainwidespreadacceptanceandapplication.Aboomingpost-WorldWarIIAmericaneconomyestablishedagreaterneedforgraphicdesign,mainlyadvertisingandpackaging.TheemigrationoftheGermanBauhausschoolofdesigntoChicagoin1937broughta“mass-produced”minimalismtoAmerica;sparkingawildfireof“modern”architectureanddesign.Notablenamesinmid-centurymoderndesignincludeAdrianFrutiger,designerofthetypefacesUniversandFrutiger;PaulRand,who,fromthelate1930suntilhisdeathin1996,tooktheprinciplesoftheBauhausandappliedthemtopopularadvertisingandlogodesign,helpingtocreateauniquelyAmericanapproachtoEuropeanminimalismwhilebecomingoneoftheprincipalpioneersofthesubsetofgraphicdesignknownascorporateidentity；andJosefMuller-Brockmann,whodesignedpostersinasevereyetaccessiblemannertypicalofthe1950sand1960sera.Fromroadsignstotechnicalschematics,frominterofficememorandumstoreferencemanuals,graphicdesignenhancestransferofknowledge.Readabilityisenhancedbyimprovingthevisualpresentationoftext.Designcanalsoaidinsellingaproductorideathrougheffectivevisualcommunication.Itisappliedtoproductsandelementsofcompanyidentitylikelogos,colors,andtext.Togetherthesearedefinedasbranding(seealsoadvertising).Brandinghasincreasinglybecomeimportantintherangeofservicesofferedbymanygraphicdesigners,alongsidecorporateidentity,andthetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably.Textbooksaredesignedtopresentsubjectssuchasgeography,science,andmath.Thesepublicationshavelayoutswhichillustratetheoriesanddiagrams.Acommonexampleofgraphicsinusetoeducateisdiagramsofhumananatomy.Graphicdesignisalsoappliedtolayoutandformattingofeducationalmaterialtomaketheinformationmoreaccessibleandmorereadilyunderstandable.Graphicdesignisappliedintheentertainmentindustryindecoration,scenery,andvisualstorytelling.Otherexamplesofdesignforentertainmentpurposesincludenovels,comicbooks,openingcreditsandclosingcreditsinfilm,andprogramsandpropsonstage.Thiscouldalsoincludeartworkusedfort-shirtsandotheritemsscreenprintedforsale.Fromscientificjournalstonewsreporting,thepresentationofopinionandfactsisoftenimprovedwithgraphicsandthoughtfulcompositionsofvisualinformation-knownasinformationdesign.Newspapers,magazines,blogs,televisionandfilmdocumentariesmayusegraphicdesigntoinformandentertain.Withtheadventoftheweb,informationdesignerswithexperienceininteractivetoolssuchasAdobeFlashareincreasinglybeingusedtoillustratethebackgroundtonewsstories.Agraphicdesignprojectmayinvolvethestylizationandpresentationofexistingtextandeitherpreexistingimageryorimagesdevelopedbythegraphicdesigner.Forexample,anewspaperstorybeginswiththejournalistsandphotojournalistsandthenbecomesthegraphicdesigner'sjobtoorganizethepageintoareasonablelayoutanddetermineifanyothergraphicelementsshouldberequired.Inamagazinearticleoradvertisement,oftenthegraphicdesignerorartdirectorwillcommissionphotographersorillustratorstocreateoriginalpiecesjusttobeincorporatedintothedesignlayout.Contemporarydesignpracticehasbeenextendedtothemoderncomputer,forexampleintheuseofWYSIWYGuserinterfaces,oftenreferredtoasinteractivedesign,ormultimediadesign.Beforeanygraphicelementsmaybeappliedtoadesign,thegraphicelementsmustbeoriginatedbymeansofvisualartskills.Thesegraphicsareoften(butnotalways)developedbyagraphicdesigner.Visualartsincludeworkswhichareprimarilyvisualinnatureusinganythingfromtraditionalmedia,tophotographyorcomputergeneratedart.Graphicdesignprinciplesmaybeappliedtoeachgraphicartelementindividuallyaswellastothefinalcomposition.Typographyistheart,craftandtechniquesoftypedesign,modifyingtypeglyphs,andarrangingtype.Typeglyphs(characters)arecreatedandmodifiedusingavarietyofillustrationtechniques.Thearrangementoftypeistheselectionoftypefaces,pointsize,linelength,leading(linespacing)andletterspacing.Typographyisperformedbytypesetters,compositors,typographers,graphicartists,artdirectors,andclericalworkers.UntiltheDigitalAge,typographywasaspecializedoccupation.Digitizationopeneduptypographytonewgenerationsofvisualdesignersandlayusers.Pagelayoutisthepartofgraphicdesignthatdealsinthearrangementandstyletreatmentofelements(content)onapage.Beginningfromearlyilluminatedpagesinhand-copiedbooksoftheMiddleAgesandproceedingdowntointricatemodernmagazineandcataloglayouts,properpagedesignhaslongbeenaconsiderationinprintedmaterial.Withprintmedia,elementsusuallyconsistoftype(text),images(pictures),andoccasionallyplace-holdergraphicsforelementsthatarenotprintedwithinksuchasdie/lasercutting,foilstampingorblindembossing.Graphicdesignersareofteninvolvedininterfacedesign,suchaswebdesignandsoftwaredesignwhenenduserinteractivityisadesignconsiderationofthelayoutorinterface.Combiningvisualcommunicationskillswiththeinteractivecommunicationskillsofuserinteractionandonlinebranding,graphicdesignersoftenworkwithsoftwaredevelopersandwebdeveloperstocreateboththelookandfeelofawebsiteorsoftwareapplicationandenhancetheinteractiveexperienceoftheuserorwebsitevisitor.Printmakingistheprocessofmakingartworksbyprintingonpaperandothermaterialsorsurfaces.Exceptinthecaseofmonotyping,theprocessiscapableofproducingmultiplesofthesamepiece,whichiscalledaprint.Eachpieceisnotacopybutanoriginalsinceitisnotareproductionofanotherworkofartandistechnicallyknownasanimpression.Paintingordrawing,ontheotherhand,createauniqueoriginalpieceofartwork.Printsarecreatedfromasingleoriginalsurface,knowntechnicallyasamatrix.Commontypesofmatricesinclude:platesofmetal,usuallycopperorzincforengravingoretching;stone,usedforlithography;blocksofwoodforwoodcuts,linoleumforlinocutsandfabricplatesforscreen-printing.Buttherearemanyotherkinds,discussedbelow.Worksprintedfromasingleplatecreateanedition,inmoderntimesusuallyeachsignedandnumberedtoformalimitededition.Printsmayalsobepublishedinbookform,asartist'sbooks.Asingleprintcouldbetheproductofoneormultipletechniques.Chromaticsisthefieldofhoweyesperceivecolorandhowtoexplainandorganizethosecolorsintheprinterandonthemonitor.TheRetinaintheeyeiscoveredbytwolight-sensitivereceptorsthatarenamedrodsandcones.Rodsaresensitivetolight,butnotsensitivetocolor.Conesaretheoppositeofrods.Theyarelesssensitivetolight,butcolorcanbeperceived.Withthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,moreandmoreattentionispaidtoausterityofenvironmentalpromblems,suchaspollutingofatmosphere,destroyofforest,soilerosion,landdesertification,waterresourcepolluting,agreatdealofspeciesbecamingextinct,exhanstingofpetroleum,naturalgasandcoalandsoon.Adesignershouldhaveastrongconsciousnessofprotectingenvironmentandtomakehis\herdesigntobebasedonavoidingdestroyingenvironmentandsavingnaturalrecourse.Nowadays,greenhouseeffects,destroyedozonelayersandacidrainarethreeglobalenvironmentalquestions.Greenhouseeffectisphenomenaoftheatmospherebecomingwarmer.TheformingprincipleofgreenhouseeffectisthattheSunshortwaveradiationcanpenetrateintogroundthroughatmosphere,longwaveradiationemittedfromgroundaftergroundiswarmed,isabsorbedbycarbondioxideofatmosphere,andthenatmospheregetswarmer.Thecarbondioxideintheatmospherechangestheearthtoalargegreenhouselikeathicklayerofglass.Methane,ozone,chlorine,Fluorine,hydrocarbonandaqueousvaporalsomakesomecontributiontogreenhouseeffects.Withrapidincreaseofpopulationandrapiddevelopmentofindustry,moreandmorecarbondioxideofatmosphereentersintoatmosphere.Becauseforestiscundowninalargeamountalso,carbondioxideincreasesgradally,andthegreenhouseeffectsarestrengthenedconstantly.Theresultsofthegreenhouseeffectsareveryserious.Thegreatchangeswilltakeplaceinthenaturalecology,suchasdesertexpanding,landcorrodingaggravating,forestretreatingtothepolarregion,calamityofdroughtandwaterlogseriousandrainfallincreasing.Thetemperatezonewillbewetterinwaterandwillbedroughtierinsummer.Tropicalzonewillbecomewetterandsubtropicalzonewillbecomemorearid.Alloftheseabovewillforcestheexistingirrigationworkstobeadjusted.Coastalregionswillbethreatenedseriously.Becausethetemperatureisrising,ice-cubeswillbemeltedatthetwopolessotothesealevelwillberisingandalotofcitiesandportswillbesubmerged.Theozonelayerdestroyedshockedacademiaandthewholeinternationalaommunity.Americanscientists,MonilaandRowland,pointedoutthatitishumanactivitiesbringozoneholeoftoday.arch-criminalthatwenowwellknowisfreonandKazakhstandragon.Acidrainhasalreadybecomeakindofairpollutionphenomenoninextensiverange,crossingovernationalboundariesatpresent.Acidraindestroyssoil,makeslakeacidandendangersgrowingofabimalsandplants.Italsostimulatespeople'sskin,bringsouttheskindisease,causeslunghydronces,lungharden,andcorrodesthemetalproduct,paint,leather,fabricsandbuildingwithcarbonate.Inaword,theenvironmentofhumanlifehasalreadyworseneddaybyday.Thereasonsoftheworseningmostlycomefromthehumanownbadlifestyle,disrespectingtheobjectivelaw,eagerforquicksuccess,useoftheearthresourcewithoutscientificplan,andlackofconsciousnesspratectingtheenvironmentindesign.Sotheydestroyhomebythemselves,whichnotonlyharmhumanoncontemporary,butalsoseriouslyinfluenceexistenceofdescendants.Theenvironmentalquestioniscausedbypeople'sbaddesignandlifestyletoagreatextent,whichputsforwardaseriousquestionforadesignerthatdesignersshouldundertakethehistoricalimportanttaskofenvironmentprotection.Industryhasbroughtthedisastertoworldwhilecreatesalargeamountofwealthformankind.Industrydesignhasacceleratedtheconsumpitionoftheresourceandenergyresourceandhascausedenormousdestructiontotheecologicalbalanceoftheearthwhilecreatingmodernlifestyleandlivingenvironmentformankind.Soasindustrydesigners,settingupenvironmentalawarenessincarnatestheirmoralsandsocialsenseofresponsibility.Designersmustberesponsiblefortheirowndesigns,andmusttakehumanhealthandblessedness,andharmonicallycoexistingofnaturewiththehumanastherulesnecessarilyobeyedintheirowndesign.Designersmustalsomasterthenecessaryknowledegeinmaterial,craft,chemicalindustry,manufacturing,ect.,inordertobepossibleforavoidingtodangertoenvironmentcausingbyhisdesign.Theconceptof"Sustainabledevelopmentdesign"hasepoch-malingmeaningsofhumanityandrealdevelopmentoftheworld.Itreflectsthedesigner'smoralsandresponsibility,andhasalreadybecomethetrendofdesigningdevelopmentinthe21stcentury.Hence,mankind'sdevelopmentmadeoftraditionalindustrialcivilizationwasturnedtooneofthemodernecologicalcivilization.Itisthecoordinationofsocialprogress,economicgrowthandenvironmentalprotestion.Sustainabledevelopmentisakindconceptofbrand-newethics,moralsandvaluesthatpeopleshouldfollow.Itsessenceliesinfullyutilizingthemodernscienceandtechnongy,exploitinggreenresources,developmentconstantly,impellingharmoniousdevelopmentbetweenhumanandnatureandpramotinginter-harmonyofpopulation,resourceandenvironment.Solvingtheproblemofsustainabledevelopmentisachangeoftechnologicalinnovationandbehaviormade.Sustainabledevelopmentstrategyistosolvetheproblemofmeetingcontemporarypeople'sdemandsinmaximumunderthepreconditionofun-hurtingseveralgenerations'demandsofthefuture.Itwillrealizetheunityofthepresentinterestsandlong-terminterestandleavethedevelopmentspacefordescendants.Thequestionofthestrategicconsiderationofsustainabledevelopmentshouldincludecirculation,greenenergyandecologicalefficiency.Greendesigncomesfromintrospectiononenvironmentalandecologicaldisruptioncausedbydesignofmoderntechnologyandculture.Greendesignfocusesonthebalancerelationofpersonsandnaturalecology.Designersshouldconsidertheenvironmentalbenefitsateverydecisionofthedisignprocess,andtrytheirbesttoreducethedestructiontoenvironment.Forindustrydesign,thecoreofgreendesignis"3R",namelyReduce,RecycleandReuse.Itisnecessarynotonlytoreduceconsunptionofsubstanceandenergysources,andreducelettingofharmfulsubstance,butalsotoclassifiedreclaim,recycleandreuseproductsandpartsconveniently.Greendesignisnotonlytechnical,butalsoaninnovativeidea.Itrequiresdesignertogiveupsomerat-fuckmethodexcessivelyemphasizingatthestyleofproducts,andtofocusontherealinnovative.Heorshewoulddesigntheformoftheproductswithmoreresponsiblemethodandmaketheproductslengthentheirwervicelifeasmuchaspossiblethroughsuccinctandpermanentmodeling.Formaterials,stockandregenerationofrawmaterials,consumptionandpollutionofenvironmentalenergyduringobtainingmaterials,machiningperformanceinfollow-upmanufacturing,lowconsumptionandlowpollutionofenergy,andreclaimableduringdiscardedshouldbeconsidered.Problemsofmanufacturingarethatpollutionshouldbereducedordiedoutduringbeginningofmanufacturing.Considerationonpacking,transporting,sale,ect.ismeanttheenvironmentalperformanceofpackaging,greenpacking,goodperformanceoftransportation,decreasingselfweight,reducingenergyconsumption,localizedproductionandreducingconsimptionofworkflow.Considerationontheuseofproductconcernswithwasteofenergyandresourceswhileproducesareused,themodularizationofenvironmentalperformance,recombinedability,andthemadesofusingproductwhileproductsarerenewed,aswellasotherfactors.Easydisassembledfeature,convenientdecomposit